International Journal of Marine Science, 2024, Vol.14, No.3, 231-244 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ijms 238 5.3 Economic costs of ocean acidification The economic costs of ocean acidification are substantial and multifaceted. They include direct losses in fisheries and aquaculture revenues, costs associated with mitigating and adapting to its impacts, and broader economic implications for coastal protection, tourism, and ecosystem services. A meta-analysis of economic impacts estimated that the global annual cost of ocean acidification could exceed $1 billion by 2100, with significant regional variations (Moore and Fuller, 2022). In Europe, countries with significant mollusk production, such as France, Italy, and Spain, are expected to experience the highest economic impacts, with annual losses potentially exceeding $1 billion (Narita and Rehdanz, 2017). The broader economic implications include increased costs for coastal protection due to the weakening of coral reefs. Coral reefs act as natural barriers that protect coastlines from storm surges and erosion. The degradation of these reefs due to acidification can lead to higher costs for artificial coastal defenses and increased damage from coastal storms (Doney et al., 2020). Additionally, the tourism industry, which relies heavily on the health and beauty of marine ecosystems, may suffer as acidification leads to the degradation of coral reefs and other marine habitats. This can result in reduced tourist arrivals and revenue, particularly in regions where marine tourism is a major economic driver. Furthermore, ocean acidification affects ecosystem services such as water filtration, carbon sequestration, and nutrient cycling. The loss or reduction of these services can have cascading economic effects, impacting industries beyond fisheries and tourism. For instance, reduced water quality can increase the costs of water treatment for coastal municipalities, while changes in nutrient cycling can affect agricultural productivity and food security. Effective management and mitigation strategies are crucial to reducing these costs and protecting the socioeconomic wellbeing of affected communities. Investing in research and monitoring, implementing adaptive management practices, and reducing CO2 emissions are essential steps to mitigate the impacts of ocean acidification and safeguard the services provided by marine ecosystems (Zunino et al., 2021). 6 Mitigation Strategies 6.1 Reduction of carbon emissions Mitigating the impacts of ocean acidification requires a multi-faceted approach, incorporating global efforts to reduce carbon emissions, geoengineering techniques, and localized adaptation measures. This section explores these strategies in detail. The most effective strategy for mitigating ocean acidification is the reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. As the primary driver of ocean acidification, CO2 emissions from the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes must be curtailed to stabilize and eventually reduce the atmospheric concentration of CO2. This global effort aligns with the goals of international agreements such as the Paris Agreement, which aims to limit global warming to well below 2 ℃ above pre-industrial levels, and preferably to 1.5 ℃. Achieving these targets would significantly mitigate the extent of ocean acidification (Schlunegger et al., 2021). Policies promoting renewable energy sources, enhancing energy efficiency, and implementing carbon pricing mechanisms are critical components of emission reduction strategies. Transitioning from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, and hydroelectric power, can reduce CO2 emissions substantially. Energy efficiency improvements in buildings, transportation, and industry also play a crucial role in reducing overall energy demand and associated emissions (Harrould-Kolieb, 2019). Furthermore, carbon pricing, through mechanisms like carbon taxes or cap-and-trade systems, provides economic incentives for reducing emissions and investing in cleaner technologies. 6.2 Geoengineering approaches Geoengineering techniques offer potential methods to mitigate ocean acidification by directly manipulating the environment to counteract the effects of increased CO2 levels. One such approach is ocean alkalinization, which involves adding substances like limestone or olivine to the ocean to increase its alkalinity. This process can enhance the ocean's capacity to absorb CO2 and reduce acidification locally. For example, studies have shown that adding alkaline materials to coastal regions can help buffer pH changes and protect sensitive marine habitats like
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