International Journal of Marine Science, 2024, Vol.14, No.3, 231-244 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ijms 235 illustrate the relationships between ecosystem properties, functions, and services, indicating that the loss of habitat-forming species and the degradation of ecosystem states diminish ecosystem services. Observations from CO2 seeps worldwide show that ocean acidification leads to reductions in habitat complexity, species richness, and habitat coverage. This reduction impairs ecosystem functions, such as productivity and nutrient cycling, and consequently affects ecosystem services like coastal protection, recreation, and food provision. Overall, the figure emphasizes the importance of protecting habitat-forming species and maintaining ecosystem health. This not only helps preserve ecosystem complexity and diversity but also ensures that humans continue to benefit from the various services ecosystems provide. Figure 2 Ecosystem properties, functions and services provided by coastal habitat-forming species and the communities that they support (Adopted from Hall-Spencer and Harvey, 2019) Image caption: The loss of habitat-forming organisms and degradation of ecosystem state diminishes ecosystem services. Observations at CO2 seeps worldwide show that ocean acidification results in reductions in habitat complexity, species richness and habitat coverage. This impairs ecosystem function and the goods and services available to society, such as coastal protection, recreation and food provision (Adopted from Hall-Spencer and Harvey, 2019) 4.2 Alterations in food web dynamics Ocean acidification impacts food web dynamics by affecting the physiological and behavioral responses of marine organisms. For instance, the reduction in calcification rates among shellfish can lead to declines in their populations, which in turn affects the species that rely on them for food. Additionally, changes in the abundance and composition of primary producers can cascade through the food web, impacting secondary consumers and higher trophic levels (Riebesell et al., 2018). Acidification also affects predator-prey interactions, with some predators experiencing changes in hunting efficiency and prey vulnerability. For example, toxic algal blooms, which may increase under acidified conditions, can disrupt trophic interactions by providing a selective advantage to harmful algal species, thereby altering the food web structure and function (Riebesell et al., 2018).
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