International Journal of Marine Science, 2024, Vol.14, No.3, 162-171 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ijms 164 3.3 Impact of climate change Climate change poses a significant threat to marine ecosystems by altering ocean temperatures, chemistry, and circulation patterns. The integration of spatial-temporal data frameworks with ecosystem models has enhanced our ability to predict the impacts of climate change on marine food webs. For example, changes in primary production due to climate-induced variations cascade through the food web, affecting zooplankton and pelagic fish populations (Steenbeek et al., 2013). Additionally, the spatial and temporal dynamics of biogenic reef habitats, such as those formed by Sabellaria alveolata, show that climate change can lead to rapid accretion and erosion patterns, impacting habitat structure and biodiversity (Figure 1) (Jackson-Bué et al., 2021). Understanding these impacts is essential for developing effective management and conservation strategies. Figure 1 Changes in habitat structure of biological coral reefs (Adopted from Jackson-Bué et al., 2021) Image caption: (A) The Sabellaria alveolatabiogenetic coral reef habitat includes aggregates of sediment tubes in the community., B) Close-up image of the gradient colony surface showing a dense tube opening with a diameter of ~5 mm., C) Cross-section of 3-year 3D ground laser scanning point cloud data (Adopted from Jackson-Bué et al., 2021) The study by Jackson-Bué et al. 2021 showed structural changes in coral reef habitats formed by biomass sandworm reefs (Sabellaria alveolata), demonstrating the erosion and growth processes of reefs. Using sandworm reefs as an example, the research team showed that rising sea levels and rising sea temperatures have led to changes in habitat structure, such as erosion and physical structure. These changes not only affect the stability and growth of the reef itself, but may also have long-term impacts on marine biodiversity and ecosystem services as a whole. 4 Interactions Between Spatial and Temporal Dynamics 4.1 Synergistic effects The interplay between spatial and temporal dynamics in marine ecosystems often results in synergistic effects that can significantly influence ecosystem structure and function. For instance, the study on the spatio-temporal dynamics of a phytoplankton-zooplankton system highlights how periodic oscillations and patchiness are fundamental characteristics of marine ecosystems, driven by both local reactions and diffusion processes (Chakraborty and Manthena, 2015). Similarly, the research on coral community dynamics demonstrates that ecological chaos at small scales and order at larger scales are influenced by historical, chance, and regional processes, indicating a complex interaction between spatial and temporal factors (Pandolfi, 2002). Furthermore, the integration of spatial-temporal data into food web models, as shown in the NF-UBC Nereus Program, enhances the predictive capabilities of these models, reflecting observed species population trends and distributions more accurately (Steenbeek et al., 2013). 4.2 Case studies of combined dynamics Several case studies illustrate the combined effects of spatial and temporal dynamics in marine ecosystems. For example, the study on the spatial ecosystem and population dynamics model (SEAPODYM) for tuna species in the Pacific Ocean shows how spatial dynamics, driven by bio-physical environmental factors, influence the distribution and behavior of tuna populations over time (Lehodey et al., 2008). Another case study on the
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