International Journal of Aquaculture 2025, Vol.15, No.6 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ija © 2025 AquaPublisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved. Publisher
International Journal of Aquaculture 2025, Vol.15, No.6 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ija © 2025 AquaPublisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved. Publisher Aqua Publisher Edited by Editorial Team of International Journal of Aquaculture Email: edit@ija.aquapublisher.com Website: http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ija Address: 11388 Stevenston Hwy, PO Box 96016, Richmond, V7A 5J5, British Columbia Canada International Journal of Aquaculture (ISSN 1927-5773) is an open access, peer reviewed journal published online by AquaPublisher. The journal publishes all the latest and outstanding research articles, letters and reviews in all working and studying within varied areas of aquaculture, containing the latest developments and techniques for practice in aquaculture; information about the entire area of applied aquaculture, including breeding and genetics, physiology, aquaculture-environment, hatchery design and management, utilization of primary and secondary resources in aquaculture, production and harvest, the biology and culture of aquaculturally important and emerging species. All the articles published in International Journal of Aquaculture are Open Access, and are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. AquaPublisher uses CrossCheck service to identify academic plagiarism through the world’s leading plagiarism prevention tool, iParadigms, and to protect the original authors' copyrights. Aqua Publisher is an international Open Access publisher specializing in the field of marine science and aquaculture registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group (SPG), founded in British Columbia of Canada.
International Journal of Aquaculture (online), 2025, Vol. 15, No. 6 ISSN 1927-6648 http://aquapublisher.com/index.php/ija © 2025 AquaPublisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved. Latest Content Comprehensive Assessment of Garlic (Allium sativum) Supplement Diet Applications in Aquaculture and Its Effect on Growth Performance, Nutrition Utilization, Body Composition, Microbiome, and Survival in Different Type of Fishes Alsajjad H. Alghaya, C. Manjulatha, Aziza A. Mohamed International Journal of Aquaculture, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 6, 266-274 Length-Weight Relationship and Condition Factor of Economically and Ecologically Important Fish Species in Ilaje LGA, Ondo State, Nigeria Ojo O.B., Olawusi-Peters O.O., Ajibare A.O. International Journal of Aquaculture, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 6, 275-286 Sustainable Fisheries Management: Balancing Resource Use and Conservation Liqing Chen, Wenzhong Huang International Journal of Aquaculture, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 6, 287-297 Advances in Yellow Catfish Reproductive Biology: Implications for Aquaculture Manman Li, Liang Chen International Journal of Aquaculture, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 6, 298-307 Economic and Environmental Aspects of Porphyra spp. Cultivation: Current Practices and Future Prospects Fan Wang, Jinni Wu International Journal of Aquaculture, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 6, 308-316
International Journal of Aquaculture, 2025, Vol.15, No.6, 266-274 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ija 266 Research Insight Open Access Comprehensive Assessment of Garlic (Allium sativum) Supplement Diet Applications in Aquaculture and Its Effect on Growth Performance, Nutrition Utilization, Body Composition, Microbiome, and Survival in Different Type of Fishes Alsajjad H. Alghaya 1 , C. Manjulatha 1, Aziza A. Mohamed 2 1 Department of Zoology, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India 2 Department of Animal Production, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan Corresponding author: alsajjadalghaya991@gmail.com International Journal of Aquaculture, 2025, Vol.15, No.6 doi: 10.5376/ija.2025.15.0026 Received: 15 Aug., 2025 Accepted: 30 Oct., 2025 Published: 15 Nov., 2025 Copyright © 2025 Alghaya et al., This is an open access article published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Preferred citation for this article: Alghaya A.H., Manjulatha C., and Mohamed A.A., 2025, Comprehensive assessment of garlic (Allium sativum) supplement diet applications in aquaculture and Its effect on growth performance, nutrition utilization, body composition, microbiome, and survival in different type of fishes, International Journal of Aquaculture, 15(6): 266-274 (doi: 10.5376/ija.2025.15.0026) Abstract Garlic (Allium sativum), a bulbous flowering plant in the Allium genus, is celebrated for its diverse culinary and medicinal uses. It's a natural wonder, garlic’s proximate composition records an average of 65% water (compared to over 85% of fresh vegetables), 27.5% carbohydrates, 4.7% fber, 2%~3% organosulfurated compounds, and 2% protein. Scientific studies have revealed garlic's astonishing impact on aquatic life, especially fish. It's shown to significantly boost fish growth, reduce mortality rates, and fortify their antioxidant defenses. Allicin, the standout bioactive compound in garlic, is the driving force behind this transformation. It possesses formidable anti-parasitic properties, confirmed effective against notorious foes like freshwater Ich and marine white spot. This revelation holds promise for revolutionizing aquaculture practices. But garlic's prowess extends further through a treasure trove of organosulfur compounds, including diallyl sulfide, allicin, γ-glutamylcysteine, S-allyl cysteine (alliin), and ajoene. These compounds are associated with various health benefits, from calming inflammation and combating oxidative stress to regulating blood pressure, ameliorating hyperlipidemia, and enhancing endothelial function. In the world of aquaculture, research findings unveil the potential of garlic to be a game-changer. This comprehensive review consolidates existing knowledge on the impact of garlic on fishes. It sheds light on crucial aspects such as growth performance, nutrient utilization, body composition, and survival rates, underscoring garlic supplements' potential to reshape the aquaculture industry. In reviewed studies, garlic supplementation improved weight gain in Nile tilapia by up to 22%, enhanced feed conversion ratio (FCR) by approximately 15%, and increased survival rates to over 95% under bacterial challenge conditions. In rainbow trout, diets containing 2%~3% garlic extract increased body protein content by 6%~8% while reducing lipid deposition by nearly 10%. Similarly, juvenile sturgeon fed 0.5% garlic extract showed a rise in lipid levels from 4.8% to 6.1%, while tilapia fed 3% garlic powder achieved the highest protein levels and the lowest body fat compared to controls. These quantitative outcomes confirm garlic’s measurable role in boosting growth, nutrient utilization, and survival in aquaculture species. Keywords Garlic; Growth performance; Nutrient utilization; Molecular insight; Survival rate; Fishes 1 Introduction Fodder additives derived from medicinal plants or plant extracts are known as phytoadditives (Gabor et al., 2010). Essential nutrients for body metabolism are provided by feed additives. Dietary supplements are one of the most frequent strategies used in fish farms to increase weight gain, feed efficiency, and disease resistance in cultured fish. It is hoped that using them would provide the same results as using antibiotics (Gabor et al., 2010). Plant products such as herbs (Akrami et al., 2015). It contains huge amount of calcium, phosphorus, carbohydrates, as well as few other nutrients. Garlic (Allium sativum family Liliaceae) is known as a prophylactic as well as a therapeutic medicinal plant in different communities. Allicin (allyl 2-propenethiosulfinate or diallyl thiosulfinate) is the principal bioactive compound which is present in the aqueous extract of garlic or raw garlic homogenate. When garlic is chopped or crushed, allinase enzyme is activated and produce allicin from alliin (present in intact garlic). Other available compounds in garlic homogenate are included 1-propenyl allyl thiosulfonate, allyl methyl thiosulfonate, (E, Z)-4,5,9-trithiadodeca-l,6,11-triene 9-oxide (ajoene), and y-L-glutamyl-S-alkyl-Lcysteine (Bayan et al., 2014).
International Journal of Aquaculture, 2025, Vol.15, No.6, 266-274 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ija 267 Garlic also contains a number of beneficial compounds, includes iodine salts that are good for the circulatory system (Iqbal et al., 2001) and it contains huge amount of calcium, phosphorus, carbohydrates, as well as few other nutrients. Garlic also contains a number of beneficial compounds, includes iodine salts that are good for the circulatory system (Iqbal et al., 2001) moreover, allicin is a sulfur compound which has an important role as antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant material. Furthermore, amino acids, minerals, vitamins, and flavonoids are the other compounds in garlic (Lanzotti, 2006; Crozo-Martinez et al., 2007) (Table 1). Table 1 Biochemical composition of garlic (Allium sativum) reported by Anton (2016) and Gambogou et al., (2018) Carbohydrates Monosaccharides (fructose, glucose) Disaccharides (sucrose, lactose) Trisaccharides (rafnose) Tetrasaccharides (tetrafructose, escorodose) Depolysaccharides (starch, dextrin, inulin, fructosan) D-galactane L-arabinose Pectinsfructane D-fructan Lipids Fatty acids (linoleic acid, linolenic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid) Triglycerides Phospholipids (phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylethanolamine) Prostaglandins (prostaglandin A, prostaglandin E, prostaglandin F) Vitamins Vitamin A Vitamin B1 Vitamin B2 Vitamin B6 Vitamin C Vitamin E Minerals Phosphate, Potassium, Magnesium, Copper. Iron, Manganese, Zinc Selenium (dimethylselenide, methyl-ester-metanosulfenoselenoic acid, dimethyldiselenide, bi-(methylnethyon)-selenide, allylmethylsulfde acid, methylster-2-propensulfenoselenoic acid, propilester-1-propenic alylethylethylethylselenid acid) Sulfur compounds Allicin and allicin derivatives (various trisulfdes, ajoene, dialyl-disulfde) Aliin (S-allylcysteine-sulfoxide) Glutamyl-S-allylcysteine Methin (S-methylcysteine-sulfoxide) Isoaliin (S-trans-1-propenylcysteine-sulfoxide) Pigments Chlorophyll Carotenoids Anthocyanins (these are water-soluble pigments which give a red color, purple or blue) Other compounds Phenol acid, Organic acid, Saponósidos, Flavonoids, Fitohemaglutininas Gibberellins A3 and A7 Proteins Proteins and amino acids (lysine, threonine, valine, methionine, isoleucine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, leucine, histidine, arginine, aspartic acid, serine, glutamine, proline, glycine, alanine, and cysteine) 2 Background of Garlic in Aquaculture 2.1 Applications Garlic has been used in diferent presentations in aquaculture. Among the most used presentations are garlic powder, essential oil, garlic macerated in alcohol, and aged garlic extract (Amagase et al., 2001; López, 2007; Subramanian et al., 2020). Garlic powder is commonly used as a favoring for seasonings and processed foods (Amagase et al., 2001; Miron et al., 2004). The composition of garlic powder and raw garlic is similar; however, the proportions of various compounds can vary signifcantly (Amagase et al., 2001; Subramanian et al., 2020). For example, raw garlic has 8 g/ kg of alliin, and a dehydration process without loss of ingredients would result in an amount of alliin of 20 mg/g~25 mg/g in the powder. However, garlic powder only has 1% alliin at most. This implies that most of the alliin is lost during the dehydration process. As for garlic powder, the allicin content is well below average, refecting its instability in the processes. Although garlic powders contain compounds similar to raw garlic, their proportions do not, which can vary signifcantly (Amagase et al., 2001). On the other hand, garlic oil used for therapeutic purposes is obtained through the steam distillation process (Subramanian et al., 2020). The essential oil content in garlic cloves is 0.2%~0.5%, and it contains sulfde groups such as DADS and diallyl trisulfde. The steam distillate contains allyl methyl, diallyl, and dimethyl mono parahexa sulfde (Subramanian et al., 2020). Water-soluble compounds are completely removed during this process, such as allicin (Amagase et al., 2001). The products macerated in oil are made from raw garlic cloves ground in vegetable oil and packed in gel capsules (Amagase et al., 2001). During the manufacturing process, some alliin is converted to allicin. Because allicin is unstable and decomposes rapidly, oil mash preparations contain decomposed allicin compounds such as dithiins, ajoene, sulfdes, residual amounts of allicin, and other garlic constituents. However, the standardization to obtain ingredients in mass has not been widely explored. The aged garlic extract (AGE) is processed differently from the other presentations of garlic.
International Journal of Aquaculture, 2025, Vol.15, No.6, 266-274 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ija 268 It is allowed to age up to 20 months (Amagase et al., 2001). During this process, the odorous, harsh, and irritating garlic compounds are naturally converted into stable and safe sulfur compounds (Amagase et al., 2001). AGE mainly contains watersoluble components such as SAC and SAMC and also contains stable fat-soluble allyl sulfdes, favonoids, phenolic compounds, saponins, and other essential nutrients (López, 2007). All these presentations in which we can fnd garlic have been used in aquaculture. For instance, Metwally (2009) used garlic diets in their diferent presentations (natural, oil, and powder), concluding that adding garlic in any presentation to the diet improved the growth rate, decreased mortality rate, and increased antioxidant activity in fsh. On the other hand, Prieto et al. (2005) suggest that the most efective presentation is fresh crushed garlic. The presence of sulfur atoms in the molecules, both in the fat-soluble fraction (alein) and in the water-soluble one (allicin), is known to be fungicidal and bactericidal. This presentation has been used as a fungicide against Saprolegnia parasitica in doses of 200 mL/L, having efectiveness of 100%. By contrast, when subjected to a process such as dehydration, its efectiveness drops to 80%. This can be explained by the loss of garlic ingredients when exposed to any process (Amagase et al., 2001; Subramanian et al., 2020). Abd El-Galil and Aboelhadid (2012) reported that the application of garlic oil and freshly crushed garlic cloves in the treatment of trichodiniasis and gyrodactylosis in tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) is efective for use in hatcheries and are promising treatments for feld application. The efcacy of freshly crushed garlic compared to other presentations is due to the interaction of the alliin compound and the allinase enzyme that results in the formation of the allicin compound (Gökalp, 2018), which, as mentioned above, is an active agent against parasites (Ankri and Mirelman, 1999; Reverter et al., 2017). Furthermore, it can penetrate living tis - sue, which has implications for its potent and pro - longed efect (Miron et al., 2000) (Table 2). 2.2 Garlic bioactivity in aquaculture 2.2.1 Growth promoter The inclusion of garlic in fish feed can also infuence growth performance due to organosulfur compounds such as allicin, which is a potent stimulant for the “smell” or chemoreception of most aquatic animals, which increases the intake of food in fsh and crustaceans (Lee, 2012). The efect on growth performance from the incorporation of garlic in food has been tested in diferent aquatic species. Aly and Atti (2008) fed tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) with a diet supplemented with garlic (10 and 20 g kg−1 diet) for 2 months and reported increases in the survival rate, quality, and shelf life of tilapia. Thanikachalam et al., (2010) fed catfsh fry (Clarias gariepinus) with diets containing diferent concentrations of garlic husk powder (0%, 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5%) for 20 days, reporting higher survival rates in all groups consuming garlic peel. Manoppo Gpeogoc et al., (2016) used diets with granules containing garlic as an ingredient for feeding the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) for 1 month, documenting a signifcant efect in the growth compared to the control without garlic. Etyemez Büyükdeveci et al., (2018) studied the impact of using diets with garlic extract to feed the rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), fnding that the weight gain and the specifc growth rate of the fsh were signifcantly improved when the fsh consumed the diets containing garlic. Dong Hon Le (2020) examined the garlic as a growth promoter of juvenile sterlet sturgeon (Acipenser ruthenus) in 10 weeks only and he suggested that dietary garlic extract could improve growth and feed utilization of juvenile sterlet sturgeons. Microencapsulated garlic enhanced the growth performance in in Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchx mykiss). 2.2.2 Nutrition utilization In Egypt, they examined the using of garlic in expirement group fed on the diet supplemented with dried garlic (5 g/kg) recorded significantly the best feed conversion ratio; protein efficiency ratio and protein productive value; while the control group recorded the worst value of the tested feed utilization parameter Abdel-Hakim (2010). the supplementation of garlic powder (1%~1.5%) increased the feed utilization and the survival of red tilapia (Hossain et al., 2014). Feed utilization parameters as food intake showed the best result at 2% of dry garlic, food conversion rate parameter was the best at 3% garlic and lastly feed efficiency rate parameter showed the best result at 3% of dry garlic Ajiboye (2016). Moreover, dietary garlic extracts improved growth performance and feed utilization, improved dietary glucose utilization by stimulating insulin secretion, consequently improving fish body quality and feed efficiency of juvenile and fingerling Sterlet Sturgeon, Acipenser ruthenus (Lee et al., 2012; Hossain et al., 2014).
International Journal of Aquaculture, 2025, Vol.15, No.6, 266-274 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ija 269 Table 2 Garlic presentation and results in Aquaculture Presentation Species Application method Results Reference Raw garlic Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Diets (0.5 and 1 g/kg raw garlic) No signifcant diferences between treatments were detected. Garlic diets improved the immune response Ndong and fall 2011 Oil and cloves of garlic Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Bath (2, 2.5, and 3 ppm garlic oil) (300 mg/L x 1 of crushed garlic cloves) Tilapia recorded parasite recovery rates of 65% with garlic oil treatment and 75% with the treatment of crushed garlic cloves Abd El-Galil and Aboelhadid 2012 Aqueous extract of garlic and garlic powder Guppy fsh (Poecilia reticulata) Bath aqueous garlic extract (7.5~and 12.5 mL/L) and diets (10 and 20% garlic powder) in G. turnbulli infected guppies The prevalence and intensity of parasites were signifcantly reduced compared to control However, histopathology revealed elevated muscular dystrophy in the garlic-fed group at 20%, compared to control Fridman et al., 2014 Garlic extract Barramundi (Lates calcarifer) Bath (1, 2, 10, and 20 mL/L) Garlic signifcantly decreased the hatching of the eggs (only 5% hatched) contrasting with the high percentage of hatching in the control (95%) Militz et al., 2014 Casfaces and garlic cloves African Catfsh (Clarias gariepinus) Diets (0, 10, 20, and 30 g/kg) Signifcant increase in weight, food conversion, and survival parameters (64%) fsh-fed garlic cloves Eirna-liza et al., 2016 Aqueous garlic extract Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) Bath (200 mg/L garlic aqueous extract) Aqueous garlic extract has a low toxicity in common carp; therefore, it can be used safely in this species for any experimental purpose Syngai et al., 2016 Garlic extract Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykkis) Diets (1, 1.5, and 2% garlic extract) Weight gain and growth rate of fsh improved signifcantly with diets containing garlic Etyemez Büyükdeveci et al., 2018 Garlic powder Red Tilapia (Oreochromissp.) Diets (1, 1.5, and 2% garlic powder) Adding 1% to 1.5% garlic powder in the diet improved food utilization and survival rate of red tilapia Samson, 2019 Raw garlic polysaccharide African catfsh (Clarias gariepinus) Diets (0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0%/kg) The addition of raw garlic polysaccharid increases growth parameters, hematological indices and food consumption, food conversion index, and protein efciency index Samson, 2019 Aqueous garlic extract Guppy fsh (Poecilia reticulata) Diets (0, 0.10, 0.15, and 0.20 mL/kg aqueous garlic extract) Increased immune parameters of skin mucus, which is the frst barrier to pathogens. However, the addition of aqueous extract did not have a signifcant efect on fnal body weight and weight gain Motlagh et al., 2020
International Journal of Aquaculture, 2025, Vol.15, No.6, 266-274 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ija 270 2.2.3 Body composition In Korea they studied the effect of garlic extract on thw composition of the juvenile of Sterlet Sturgeon (Acipenser ruthenus) and the results were as the moisture content was decreased from 77.5% to 77.2% for two fish groups, which was however not significantly different (p>0.05). While protein slightly decreased from 13.8% to 13.1% whereas, lipid greatly increased from 4.8%~5.4% and 6.1% for control and 0.5% GE, respectively. However, a significant different was not observed (p>0.05) between initial and control groups. (Dong-Hoon Lee, Chang-Six Ra1, Young-Han Song1, Kyung-Il Sung1 and Jeong-Dae Kim, 2012). Other experiment revealed positive change in the body composition of Tilapia, and this experiment four different percentage of garlic have been used 0% or control, 1%, 2% and 3%, for crude protein the best result was in 3% garlic then 2%, 1% and 0% respectively, lipid was 3% of garlic the lowest lipid content then 2%, 1% and 0% and in moisture the highest content was 3% then 2%,1% and 0% respectively also, dry matter and ash were highest at 0% then 1%, 2%, 3% and the lenghth of the experiment was for 60 days (Ajiboye et al., 2016). Garlic used in different experiments and showed significance change of 30 g/kg garlic to diet led to significant increase in body protein (P < 0.05). Moisture and ash content were higher in diet containing 10 g and 20 g/kg garlic, respectively (P < 0.05). However, no significant differences were observed in body fat (P > 0.05) (Azadeh Zaefarian1 and Sakineh Yeganeh and Batoul Adhami, 2017). 2.2.4 Microbiome In the world of aquaculture, garlic has carved out a unique niche for itself thanks to its remarkable properties. It's like a natural elixir with a multitude of benefits. When added to specially crafted diets, it acts like a guardian angel for the immune system, resulting in a host that's more robust against diseases and stress (Talpur and Ikhwanuddin, 2012; Guo et al., 2015; Foysal et al., 2019; Abdel-Tawwab et al., 2020; Adineh et al., 2020). But here's where things get fascinating; garlic's influence doesn't stop there. It extends to the complex world of the gut microbiota, the tiny companions residing in the digestive system (Etyemez Büyükdeveci et al., 2018; Foysal et al., 2019; Rimoldi et al., 2020). While our knowledge in this area is still limited, it's a significant consideration, given that the gut microbiota plays a role akin to an auxiliary organ in animals (Pérez et al., 2010; Etyemez Büyükdeveci et al., 2018; Hoseinifar et al., 2019). Researchers have delved into this intriguing relationship. For instance, Etyemez Büyükdeveci and their team (2018) embarked on a 120-day adventure with rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). They served up different diets, ranging from 0% garlic (the control group) to 1% garlic (Group 1), 1.5% garlic (Group 2), and a hearty 2% garlic (Group 3). Here's the twist: as the garlic levels increased, the landscape of microbial life in the fish's guts underwent a transformation. The most significant shift occurred between the control group and Group 3, which received the highest garlic dose. The major microbial players in the fish's gut included Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Tenericutes. In the control group, Deefgea and Aeromonas were the headline acts. Groups 1 and 2 favored Deefgea and Mycoplasma. But in Group 3, basking in the garlic glory, the leading roles were snagged by Aeromonas, Deefgea, and Exiguobacterium. Deefgea is like the guardian of trout skin health (Carbajal-González et al., 2011), and Exiguobacterium is the mastermind behind lipid droplets, those miniature cellular powerhouses crucial for various functions, especially lipid metabolism (Semova et al., 2012) – a real energy boost for the fish (Walther and Farese 2012). So, that's the captivating tale of how garlic weaves its magic in the world of aquaculture, promoting fish health from the inside out. Garlic supplementation significantly alters the intestinal microbiota of cultured fish, promoting beneficial taxa while suppressing pathogens. For example, in tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), garlic diets increased the relative abundance of Lactobacillus spp. and Bacillus spp., both known for improving gut health and competitive exclusion of pathogens, while reducing opportunistic bacteria such as Aeromonas spp. and Pseudomonas spp. (Foysal et al., 2019). Similarly, in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), garlic supplementation enriched Firmicutes and Actinobacteria, while decreasing the proportion of Proteobacteria, a phylum that includes several pathogenic
International Journal of Aquaculture, 2025, Vol.15, No.6, 266-274 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ija 271 genera (Etyemez Büyükdeveci et al., 2018). Studies employing 16S rRNA gene sequencing confirmed these microbial shifts, whereas earlier research relying on culture-based methods reported enhanced counts of lactic acid bacteria and reduced Vibrio spp. (Talpur and Ikhwanuddin, 2012; Guo et al., 2015; Abdel-Tawwab et al., 2020). The implications of these changes are considerable: enrichment of probiotic taxa like Lactobacillus enhances short-chain fatty acid production, improves digestion, and stimulates mucosal immunity, while suppression of pathogenic taxa (e.g., Aeromonas hydrophila, Vibrio spp.) lowers the risk of septicemia and enteric diseases. Collectively, these findings suggest that garlic supports a more resilient gut microbiome, which translates into improved disease resistance and survival in aquaculture species. 2.2.5 Survive There have been various studies on the effects of garlic on fish health and survival. Research generally supports the beneficial effects of garlic when used properly. Some studies indicate improvements in growth rates, immune responses, and resistance to diseases. One of the experiment, they used garlic to test its effect on the survive rate on the brown trout (Salmo caspius), the survival percentage of fish fed garlic supplementation and control diet against Y. ruckeri for 14 days of challenge after 6 weeks of feeding so rhe results showed that the survival rate of bacteria challenge in fish fed garlic is more than that of the control group. The survival percentage of fish were 80, 70, and 50 in garlic addition of 30, 20, and 10 g/kg to the diet, respectively. The survival rate was higher in garlic administration at 30 g/ kg and it was 80%. Furthermore, mortality began on the sixth day of challenge in fish fed 20 g/kgand 30 g/kg garlic and on the third day in fish fed diet containing 10 g/kg garlic. While in the control group, mortality commenced from the first day of experiment and it was 100% after 6 days of challenge. All of the fish died showed sign of infection. Also garlic was examined for monosex Tilapia Zilli in Nigeria and it showed 80% exceeded in the survival rate and the best performance was for the 3% of dry garlic with 100% or no mortality recorder while the other treatment which no garlic added for, showed some diseases and mortality. Also in Egypt they tested the garlic effect on survival of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus also it showed a significant positive effect by enhancing the immune system of the Nile tilapia. Garlic supplementation has consistently improved fish survival, particularly under pathogen challenge. In Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), dietary inclusion of 30 g/kg garlic enhanced survival rates to 95%~100% when challenged with Streptococcus iniae, compared to 70%~75% in the control group (Foysal et al., 2019). Similarly, Abdel-Tawwab et al., (2020) reported that garlic diets reduced mortality of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) exposed to Vibrio alginolyticus, with survival exceeding 90%, whereas controls suffered over 40% mortality. In rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), garlic extract supplementation improved resistance to Aeromonas salmonicida challenge, with a reported LD₅₀ shifting from 1.2 × 10⁶ to 3.5 × 10⁶ CFU/mL, indicating stronger protection (Breyer et al., 2015). In addition to survival outcomes, garlic positively modulates specific immune markers. Studies have shown increases in lysozyme activity (20%~35%), complement activity (C3 and C4 proteins, +18%~25%), and phagocytic activity of leukocytes (+22%~30%) in garlic-fed groups relative to controls (Talpur and Ikhwanuddin, 2012; Adineh et al., 2020). These immunostimulatory effects are linked to allicin and other organosulfur compounds, which activate both innate and adaptive responses. Collectively, higher survival percentages under pathogen challenge and measurable improvements in immune parameters demonstrate that garlic enhances disease resistance beyond general growth-promoting effects. 3 Conclusion In conclusion, the comprehensive assessment of garlic supplement diet applications in aquaculture has revealed significant and multifaceted benefits for various fish species. The integration of garlic into fish diets has
International Journal of Aquaculture, 2025, Vol.15, No.6, 266-274 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ija 272 demonstrated marked improvements in growth performance, nutrient utilization, body composition, and microbiome balance. Additionally, enhanced survival rates have been observed, underscoring garlic's potential as a natural and effective dietary supplement. Through the conscientious application of garlic supplements, we pave the way for a more ethical and responsible future in aquaculture, where the health of fish populations and the integrity of our natural resources are harmoniously balanced. References Abd El-Galil M.A., and Aboelhadid S.M., 2012, Trials for the control of trichodinosis and gyrodactylosis in hatchery reared Oreochromis niloticus fries by using garlic, Vet Parasitol, 185: 57-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.10.035 Adineh H., Harsij M., Jafaryan H., and Asadi M., 2020, The efects of microencapsulated garlic (Allium sativum) extract on growth performance, body composition, immune response and antioxidant status of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) juveniles, J. Appl. Anim. Res., 48: 372-378. https://doi.org/10.1080/09712119.2020.1808473 Agus Putra A., Santoso U., Lee M., and Nan F., 2013, Efects of dietary katuk leaf extract on growth performance, feeding behavior and water quality of grouper Epinephelus coioides, Aceh Int J Sci Technol, 2: 17-25. https://doi.org/10.13170/aijst.2.1.488 Akhter N., Wu B., Memon A.M., and Mohsin M., 2015, Probiotics and prebiotics associated with aquaculture: a review, Fish Shellfsh Immunol, 45: 733-741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. fsi.2015.05.038 Alexander C.P., Kirubakaran C.J.W., and Michael R.D., 2010, Water soluble fraction of Tinospora cordifolia leaves enhanced the non-specifc immune mechanisms and disease resistance in Oreochromis mossambicus, Fish Shellfsh Immunol, 29: 765-772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsi.2010.07.003 Altinterim B., and Aksu O., 2019, Masere sarımsak (Allium sativum Limne) ve Tunceli sarımsağı (Allium tuncelianum Kollman) yağlarının yoğun stoklanmış gökkuşağı alabalıklarının (Oncorhynchus mykiss W.) bazı kan parametrelerine ve NBT (Nitroblue Tetrazolium) seviyelerine etkileri, Balıkesir Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 21(2): 716-723. https://doi.org/10.25092/baunfbed.637083 Aly S.M., and Atti N.M.A., 2008, Efect of garlic on the survival, growth, resistance and quality of Oreochromis niloticus, International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture, 2008: 277-296. Amagase H., Petesch B.L., Matsuura H., Kasuga S., and Itakura Y., 2001, Intake of garlic and its bioactive components, The Journal of Nutrition, 131(3): 955S-962S. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/131.3.955S Anthony J.P., Fyfe L., and Smith H., 2005, Plant active components-a resource for antiparasitic agents, Trends Parasitol, 21: 462-468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2005.08.004 Anton R., 2016, Les constituants spécifques des Alliaceae, Phytothérapie, 14: 149-153. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10298-016-1043-6 Awad E., and Awaad A., 2017, Role of medicinal plants on growth performance and immune status in fsh, Fish Shellfsh Immunol, 67: 40-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsi.2017.05. 034 Bakri I.M., and Douglas C.W.I., 2005, Inhibitory efect of garlic extract on oral bacteria, Arch Oral Biol, 50(7): 645-651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archoralbio.2004.12.002 Balasubramanian G., Sarathi M., Venkatesan C., Thomas J., and Sahul Hameed A.S., 2008, Oral administration of antiviral plant extract of Cynodon dactylon on a large scale production against White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) in Penaeus monodon, Aquaculture, 279: 2-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.03.052 Banerjee G., and Ray A.K., 2017, The advancement of probiotics research and its application in fsh farming industries, Res Vet Sci, 115: 66-77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc. 2017.01.016 Bayan L., Koulivand P.H., and Gorji A., 2014, Garlic: a review of potential therapeutic efects, Avicenna J Phytomed, 4: 1-14. https://doi.org/10.22038/ajp.2014.1741 Bender-Bojalil D., and Bárcenas-Pozos M.E., 2013, El ajo y sus aplicaciones en la conservación de alimentos, Temas Selectos de Ingeniería de Alimentos, 7(1): 25-36. Bonder M.J., Tigchelaa E.F., Cai X., Trynka G., Cenit M.C., and Hrdlickova B., 2016, The infuence of a short-term gluten-free diet on the human gut microbiome, Genome Med, 8: 45. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13073-016-0295-y
International Journal of Aquaculture, 2025, Vol.15, No.6, 266-274 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ija 273 Borlinghaus J., Albrecht F., Gruhlke M.C., Nwachukwu I.D., and Slusarenko A.J., 2014, Allicin: chemistry and biological properties, Molecules, 19: 12591-12618. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules190812591 Breyer K.E., Getchell R.G., Cornwell E.R., Wooster G.A., Ketola H.G., and Bowser P.R., 2015, Efcacy of an extract from garlic, Allium sativum, against infection with the Furunculosis bacterium, Aeromonas salmonicida, in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, J World Aquacult Soc, 46: 273-282. https://doi.org/10.1111/jwas.12218 Bruck R., Aeed H., Brazovsky E., Noor T., and Hershkoviz R., 2005, Allicin, the active component of garlic, prevents immune-mediated, concanavalin A-induced hepatic injury in mice, Liver Int, 25: 613-621. https://doi.org/10. 1111/j.1478-3231.2005.01050.x Büyükdeveci M.E., Balcázar J.L., Demirkale İ., and Dikel S., 2018, Efects of garlic-supplemented diet on growth performance and intestinal microbiota of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Aquaculture, 486: 170-174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture. 2017.12.022 Carbajal-González M.T., Fregeneda-Grandes J.M., Suárez-Ramos S., Rodríguez Cadenas F., and Aller-Gancedo J.M., 2011, Bacterial skin fora variation and in vitro inhibitory activity against Saprolegnia parasitica in brown and rainbow trout, Dis Aquat Org, 96: 125-135. https://doi.org/10. 3354/dao02391 Carbone D., and Faggio C., 2016, Importance of prebiotics in aquaculture as immunostimulants Efects on immune system of Sparus aurata and Dicentrarchus labrax, Fish Shellfsh Immunol, 54: 172-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsi.2016. 04.011 Chandrashekar P.M., and Venkatesh Y.P., 2012, Fructans from aged garlic extract produce a delayed immunoadjuvant response to ovalbumin antigen in BALB/c mice, Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol, 34: 174-180. https://doi.org/10.3109/08923973.2011.584066 Cinatl J., Morgenstern B., Bauer G., Chandra P., Rabenau H., and Doerr H.W., 2003, Glycyrrhizin, an active component of liquorice roots, and replication of SARS-associated coronavirus, Lancet, 361: 2045-2046. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13615-X Citarasu T., 2010, Herbal biomedicines: a new opportunity for aquaculture industry, Aquacult Int, 18: 403-414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-009-9253-7 Cunha J.A., Heizmann B.M., and Baldisserotto B., 2018, The efects of essential oils and their major compounds on fsh bacterial pathogens—a review, J Appl Microbiol, 125: 328-344. https://doi.org/10.1111/jam.13911 Dawood M.A.O., and Koshio S., 2016, Recent advances in the role of probiotics and prebiotics in carp aquaculture: a review, Aquaculture, 454: 243-251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. aquaculture.2015.12.033 Dehler C.E., Secombes C.J., and Martin S.A.M., 2017, Environmental and physiological factors shape the gut microbiota of Atlantic salmon parr (Salmo salar L.), Aquaculture, 467: 149-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2016. 07.017 Eirna-liza N., Saad C.R., Hassim H.A., and Karim M., 2016, The efects of dietary inclusion of garlic on growth performance and disease resistance of African catfsh (Clarias gariepinus) fngerlings against Aeromonas hydrophila infection, J Environ Biol, 37: 817-824. https://doi.org/10. 4324/9780203137574 El-dougdoug K.A., Sofy A.R., Mousa A.A., Sofy M.R., Hmed A.A., and Abbas A.A., 2018, Safe and efcacious anti-cytomegalovirus agents with therapeutic activity in vitro, J Microbiol Res, 8: 33-42. https://doi.org/10.5923/j.microbiology. 20180802.02 FAO, 2020, El estado mundial de la pesca y la acuicultura 2020, La sostenibilidad en acción, 1(1): e003-e003. Ferreira-Halder C.V., de Sousa Faria A.V., and Andrade S.S., 2017, Action and function of Faecalibacterium prausnitzii in health and disease, Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol, 31: 643-648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpg.2017.09.011 Forwood J.M., Harris J.O., and Deveney M.R., 2013, Efcacy of current and alternative bath treatments for Lepidotrema bidyana infecting silver perch Bidyanus bidyanus, Aquaculture, 416-417: 65-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquac ulture.2013.08.034 Foysal M.J. Alam M., Momtaz F., Chaklader M.R., Siddik M.A., Cole A., and Rahman M.M., 2019, Dietary supplementation of garlic (Allium sativum) modulates gut microbiota and health status of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) against Streptococcus iniae infection, Aquacult Res, 50: 2107-2116. https://doi.org/10.1111/are.14088 Fridman S., Sinai T., and Zilberg D., 2014, Efcacy of garlic based treatments against monogenean parasites infecting the guppy (Poecilia reticulata (Peters)), Vet Parasitol, 203: 51-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.02.002
International Journal of Aquaculture, 2025, Vol.15, No.6, 266-274 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ija 274 Gajardo K., Jaramillo-Torres A., Kortner T.M., Merrifeld D.L., Tinsley J., Bakke A.M., and Krogdahl A., 2017, Alternative protein sources in the diet modulate microbiota and functionality in the distal intestine of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), Appl Environ Microbiol, 83(5): 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02615-16 Gambogou B., Anani K., Karou S.D., Ameyapoh Y.A., and Simpore J., 2018a, Efect of aqueous garlic extract on bioflm formation and antibiotic susceptibility of multidrug-resistant uropathogenic Escherichia coli clinical isolates in Togo, Int J Adv Multidiscip Res, 5: 23-33. Gambogou B., Ouattara A., Taale E., Karou S., Ameyapoh Y., and Simpore J., 2018b, Garlic as alternative therapy to treat uropathogene bacteria in women with urinary tract infection in Lomé Togo, Eur J Pharm Med Res, 5: 1-7. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints201809.0077.v1 Ganguly S., Dora K.C., Sarkar S., and Chowdhury S., 2013, Supplementation of prebiotics in fsh feed: a review, Rev Fish Biol Fish, 23: 195-199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-012-9291-5 Gbekley H.E., Karou S.D., Katawa G., Tchacondo T., Batawila K., Ameyapoh Y., and Simpore J., 2018, Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in the management of hypertension in the maritime region of Togo African, J Tradit Complement Altern Med, 15: 85-97. https://doi.org/10.21010/ajtcam.vi15.1.9 Gismondo M.R., Drago L., and Lombardi A., 1999, Review of probiotics available to modify gastrointestinal fora, Int J Antimicrob Agents, 12: 287-292. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-8579(99)00050-3 Gökalp F., 2018, The inhibition efect of garlic-derived compounds on human immunodefciency virus type 1 and saquinavir, J Biochem Mol Toxicol, 32: e22215-e22215. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbt.22215 Maza M.G., Guerra Ibañez G.G., Hernández J.C.M., and Dopico A.C., 2014, Revisión bibliográfca sobre el uso terapéutico del ajo, Rev Cubana Med Fis Rehabil, 6(1): 61-71.
International Journal of Aquaculture, 2025, Vol.15, No.6, 275-286 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ija 275 Meta Analysis Open Access Length-Weight Relationship and Condition Factor of Economically and Ecologically Important Fish Species in Ilaje LGA, Ondo State, Nigeria Ojo O.B. 1 , Olawusi-Peters O.O. 2, Ajibare A.O. 3 1 Department of Agricultural Science and Technology, Bamidele Olumilua University of Education, Science and Technology, PMB 250 Ikere-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria 2 Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Technology, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria 3 Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Technology, Olusegun Agagu University of Science and Technology, Okitipupa, Ondo State, Nigeria Corresponding author: ojo.oluwasola@bouesti.edu.ng International Journal of Aquaculture, 2025, Vol.15, No.6 doi: 10.5376/ija.2025.15.0027 Received: 15 Sep., 2025 Accepted: 31 Oct., 2025 Published: 17 Nov., 2025 Copyright © 2025 Ojo et al., This is an open access article published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Preferred citation for this article: Ojo O.B., Olawusi-Peters O.O., and Ajibare A.O., 2025, Length-weight relationship and condition factor of economically and ecologically important fish species in Ilaje LGA, Ondo State, Nigeria, International Journal of Aquaculture, 15(6): 275-286 (doi: 10.5376/ija.2025.15.0027) Abstract Length–weight relationship (LWR) and condition factor (K) are critical parameters for evaluating fish growth patterns, stock status, and ecosystem health. This study examined Ethmalosa fimbriata and Chrysichthys macropogon from four coastal fishing villages; Ayetoro, Bijimi, Idiogba, and Asumogha in Ilaje Local Government Area, Ondo State, Nigeria. A total of 320 specimens were collected between April and July using gillnets of varying mesh sizes. Standard length and body weight were measured, and LWR parameters were estimated using log-transformed regressions, while Fulton’s condition factor was applied to assess fish health and habitat suitability. Results showed that both species exhibited allometric growth, with growth exponent (b) values significantly deviating from the isometric standard of 3. The condition factor for E. fimbriata ranged from 0.92 at Bijimi to 1.56 at Idiogba, while C. macropogon varied from 0.74 at Asumogha to 1.70 at Ayetoro. Higher K values at Idiogba and Ayetoro indicate relatively favorable habitats, whereas lower values at Bijimi and Asumogha suggest environmental stress and reduced food availability. Correlation analysis revealed a positive but site-dependent relationship between length and weight, with stronger associations in stations of higher habitat quality. These findings underscore the influence of habitat variability on fish condition and highlight the need for continuous ecological monitoring. The study provides a baseline for sustainable fisheries management and conservation strategies in Nigeria’s coastal waters. Keywords Length–weight relationship; Condition factor; Allometric growth; Fisheries management; Coastal ecosystems; Nigeria 1 Introduction The length–weight relationship (LWR) and condition factor (K) are fundamental parameters in fisheries biology, providing insights into growth patterns, health status, and habitat suitability of fish populations. LWR describes how body weight varies with length, while K serves as an index of well-being and ecological fitness, reflecting the influence of food availability, environmental conditions, and anthropogenic pressures (Blackwell et al., 2020; Akinyemi et al., 2021). Together, these metrics are widely used in stock assessment, ecological monitoring, and fisheries management. Building on our previous research (Ojo et al., 2025), which examined the effect of heavy metal on Ethmalosa fimbriata and Chrysichthys macropogon in Ilaje LGA, this study extends the analysis by exploring the dimensions of Length-weight relationship and condition factor of the fish species in the study areas while earlier paper highlighted how pollution could impair the health of fish in the study area, the current work emphasizes their health status, providing a complementary perspective on their growth pattern considering the environmental changes. Variations in LWR and K are often attributed to environmental gradients, seasonal fluctuations, and biological factors such as age, sex, and reproductive cycles (Mazumder et al., 2016; Ibrahim et al., 2022). In addition, human activities including pollution, overfishing, and habitat alteration exert strong impacts on fish condition and growth, often serving as bioindicators of ecosystem stress (Nwani et al., 2020; Olanrewaju et al., 2023). Assessing these parameters is therefore crucial in understanding the ecological integrity of aquatic systems, particularly in regions where fisheries provide food and income security.
International Journal of Aquaculture, 2025, Vol.15, No.6, 275-286 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ija 276 In Nigeria and across West Africa, artisanal fisheries play a central role in coastal livelihoods. Species such as Ethmalosa fimbriata (bonga shad), a dominant small pelagic fish, and Chrysichthys macropogon (catfish), a demersal species of commercial value, are ecologically and economically significant (Adewumi et al., 2021; Akintade et al., 2023). Both species contribute substantially to food security, trade, and cultural practices in coastal communities. However, their populations are increasingly threatened by environmental stressors, including oil exploration, coastal industrialization, and unsustainable fishing practices in the Niger Delta (Olusola et al., 2018; Ajibare and Ayeku, 2024). The Ilaje Local Government Area of Ondo State, located within the Niger Delta, is a critical fishing hub where these species are heavily exploited. Yet, despite their importance, limited studies have assessed the growth and condition of these species under the combined influence of artisanal fishing pressure and environmental variability in this region. The length–weight relationship (LWR) has long been recognized as one of the most widely applied tools in fisheries biology. It provides valuable insights into growth dynamics, population health, and ecological adaptations of fish species. Typically expressed as a power function of length and weight, LWR helps in estimating growth patterns, biomass, and energy allocation within populations (Froese, 2006; Ibrahim et al., 2022). Deviations from the expected isometric growth exponent (b = 3) indicate whether a species is undergoing positive or negative allometric growth, which often reflects environmental conditions, food availability, and reproductive status (Akinyemi et al., 2021; Eni et al., 2022). Closely related to LWR, the condition factor (K) is used as a simple but powerful indicator of fish health, reflecting the “plumpness” or well-being of individuals relative to their size. High K values typically suggest good feeding conditions, reproductive readiness, or suitable environmental quality, whereas low values may indicate stress, scarcity of food, or habitat degradation (Blackwell et al., 2020; Akintade et al., 2023). Together, these two indices serve as important bioindicators, allowing fisheries managers to assess habitat suitability and ecological stressors. Several studies in West Africa have applied LWR and K to understand the responses of fish populations to environmental variability. For instance, Adewumi et al. (2021) examined commercially important fish species in Nigerian coastal waters and reported that variations in K were strongly linked to seasonal changes and fishing pressure. Similarly, Nwani et al. (2020) observed that length–weight patterns of tropical river fishes were strongly influenced by anthropogenic stressors such as pollution and habitat modification. More recent studies have highlighted the potential of these parameters for long-term monitoring, noting that LWR and K not only provide information on stock dynamics but also serve as proxies for ecosystem health in data-poor fisheries (Olanrewaju et al., 2023; Ajibare and Ayeku, 2024). Specifically, Ethmalosa fimbriata (bonga shad) and Chrysichthys macropogon (catfish) have received increasing attention because of their ecological and commercial significance in coastal West Africa. Both species play a central role in artisanal fisheries, yet they are also vulnerable to overexploitation and environmental stress. Recent studies indicate that their LWR and K values vary significantly across habitats, reflecting the influence of coastal degradation, food availability, and fishing intensity (Udo et al., 2019; Akintade et al., 2023). Thus, understanding their growth and condition is vital for guiding sustainable fisheries management. Overall, LWR and condition factor remain indispensable tools for evaluating fish stock status. With growing environmental pressures in the Niger Delta and other coastal ecosystems, the continuous application of these indices is critical for detecting early signs of ecological imbalance, supporting conservation initiatives, and ensuring sustainable fisheries exploitation. 1.1 Studies on fish species in Nigerian waters: length–weight relationship and condition factor Ethmalosa fimbriata is one of the most abundant small pelagic fishes in West African coastal waters and plays a central role in artisanal fisheries. It provides affordable protein and serves as a major income source for coastal households (Eni et al., 2022). Several studies have reported variations in its LWR and condition factor across
RkJQdWJsaXNoZXIy MjQ4ODYzNA==