International Journal of Aquaculture, 2024, Vol.14, No.4, 221-231 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ija 224 3.2 Vulnerable species and habitats The vulnerability of species and habitats to climate change varies widely. In the Pacific Islands region, a vulnerability assessment identified invertebrates as the most vulnerable group, while pelagic and coastal species not associated with coral reefs were the least vulnerable (Giddens et al., 2022). Species with complex life histories, habitat specialization, long lifespans, and low population growth rates are particularly at risk (McClure et al., 2023). For example, the Hilsa fish in the Meghna estuary is significantly affected by climate-forced hydrological changes, impacting its population and the local economy. Habitats such as coastal and riverine areas are highly vulnerable due to the combined effects of climate change and anthropogenic stressors. 3.3 Ecosystem services at risk Climate change poses a significant threat to the ecosystem services provided by aquatic ecosystems. Coral reefs, for example, offer food, income, coastal protection, and other services to approximately 500 million people globally. The degradation of these reefs due to climate change could lead to increased poverty and social disruption. Similarly, coastal ecosystems in small tropical islands, which provide essential services such as protein sources, building materials, and tourism revenue, are declining due to climate change (Hernández-Delgado, 2015; Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2017). Estuaries also provide critical services, including supporting fisheries and maintaining water quality. The impacts of climate change on these ecosystems could disrupt these services, leading to broader ecological and socio-economic consequences (Filho et al., 2022). 4 Adaptation Strategies for Aquatic Ecosystems 4.1 Conservation and restoration efforts 4.1.1 Marine protected areas (MPAs) Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are a critical tool in the conservation and restoration of marine ecosystems. They serve to mitigate the impacts of climate change by providing refuges where marine life can thrive without the pressures of human activities such as fishing and habitat destruction. However, the effectiveness of MPAs under climate change is a subject of ongoing research and debate. Studies have shown that while MPAs can enhance ecosystem resilience, their static nature may limit their effectiveness as species distributions shift due to changing ocean conditions (Bruno et al., 2018; Tittensor et al., 2019). To address these challenges, it is recommended that MPAs incorporate climate-responsive design and management, including dynamic management tools and climate-smart objectives (Wilson et al., 2020). Additionally, the integration of MPAs with other management strategies, such as marine spatial planning and stakeholder participation, is crucial for maximizing their resilience and effectiveness. 4.1.2 Habitat restoration techniques Habitat restoration is another vital strategy for enhancing the resilience of aquatic ecosystems. Techniques such as coral transplantation and artificial reef deployments have shown promise in restoring degraded habitats, particularly for cold-water corals (CWCs) (Montseny et al., 2021). These restoration efforts are essential for ecosystems that are highly vulnerable to climate change and other anthropogenic stressors. However, the success of these techniques depends on a thorough understanding of the biological and ecological characteristics of the target species and habitats. Long-term monitoring and a combination of active and passive restoration approaches are recommended to ensure the sustainability and effectiveness of restoration efforts. 4.1.3 Community involvement and stakeholder engagement Community involvement and stakeholder engagement are critical components of successful conservation and restoration efforts. Engaging local communities in the management and monitoring of MPAs and restoration projects can enhance the legitimacy and effectiveness of these initiatives. Stakeholder participation ensures that management strategies are socially acceptable and culturally relevant, which is particularly important in coastal social-ecological systems. Collaborative governance approaches that integrate scientific knowledge with local and traditional knowledge can lead to more adaptive and resilient management practices (Schmidt et al., 2022).
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