International Journal of Aquaculture, 2024, Vol.14, No.4, 174-183 http://www.aquapublisher.com/index.php/ija 175 Vietnam (Nedoluzhko et al., 2021). Historically, wild populations of genetically pure ancestors are still found in confined areas of Thrace and Northern Anatolia, and possibly in eastern parts of Greece (Vilizzi, 2012). These regions represent the natural habitat where the species evolved and adapted to local environmental conditions. 2.2 Introduction to non-native environments The introduction of common carp to non-native environments has been driven by a combination of historical, economic, and cultural motives. Since Roman times, common carp have been translocated throughout the Mediterranean region for aquaculture and recreational purposes (Vilizzi, 2012). In North and South America, introductions stem from aquaculture facilities and historical introductions for recreational angling. Similarly, in Australia, the species was introduced and has since become the most abundant large freshwater fish in south-east Australia (Crichigno et al., 2016). 2.3 Patterns of spread across different continents The spread of common carp across different continents has followed distinct patterns influenced by environmental conditions and human activities. In the Americas, the distributional potential of common carp covers most temperate regions and high mountain tropical aquatic systems. In southern South America, the species has expanded westward into the Andean Region and established well in the southernmost populations (Vilizzi et al., 2015). In Australia, common carp have spread rapidly and now dominate fish communities over more than 1 million km². The species' success as an invader is attributed to its multiple traits that favor invasion and the degradation of aquatic environments that give it a relative advantage over native species (Samsing et al., 2021). The global perspective on common carp invasions highlights the species' adaptability and the profound ecological impacts it can have on native aquatic faunas. Understanding the historical context and patterns of spread is crucial for developing effective management strategies to mitigate the negative consequences of these invasions. 3 Ecological Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems 3.1 Disruption of native species 3.1.1 Competition for resources Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) are known to compete with native fish species for resources, significantly impacting their growth and survival. In mesocosm experiments, the presence of common carp reduced the growth of native fish species, although this effect was mitigated by higher native species diversity (Gallardo et al., 2016). Additionally, in Australian dryland rivers, carp monopolized food resources, leading to a decrease in native fish biomass (Marshall et al., 2019). This competition for resources can lead to significant declines in native fish populations, particularly in ecosystems where carp densities are high (Collins et al., 2017). 3.1.2 Predation on native fish Common carp can also directly impact native fish populations through predation. In some ecosystems, carp have been observed to prey on native fish eggs and juveniles, further exacerbating their decline. For example, in Australian dryland rivers, the predation by carp has been linked to the extirpation of an endangered river snail (Marshall et al., 2019). This predatory behavior, combined with their competitive nature, makes common carp a significant threat to native fish species. 3.1.3 Habitat modification Common carp are notorious for their ability to modify habitats, often leading to detrimental effects on native species. Their benthic foraging behavior increases water turbidity and uproots aquatic macrophytes, transforming clear-water lakes into turbid ones (Rolls et al., 2107). This habitat modification not only reduces the availability of suitable habitats for native species but also alters the entire ecosystem's structure and function. In shallow lakes, the presence of common carp has been associated with a shift from macrophyte-dominated clear water states to phytoplankton-dominated turbid states (Matsuzaki et al., 2008). 3.2 Alteration of food web dynamics The introduction of common carp into aquatic ecosystems can lead to significant alterations in food web dynamics.
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