International Journal of Molecular Zoology, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 78-89 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmz 82 protection measures in these climate-vulnerable regions (Smith et al., 2019; Da Motta Portillo et al., 2021; Cabral et al., 2024). 5 Ecological Relationship between Snakes and Climate at Large Scale 5.1 Species distribution patterns and the main influences of climate Species Distribution Model (abbreviated as SDMs) is a commonly used method for analyzing and predicting the geographical distribution of snakes nowadays. Many studies have pointed out that climatic factors, especially temperature and rainfall, are the main conditions determining the living areas of snakes. When these models were applied to the study of venomous snakes on a global scale and in some specific regions (such as Brazil and the Atlantic forests of North America), the results showed that future climate change might significantly reduce the distribution area of many snake species. As the climate keeps changing, some snakes may move to new areas or expand their survival range (Archis et al., 2018; Biber et al., 2023; Song et al., 2023; Sunny et al., 2023). These results also indicate that the climate zones suitable for snakes to live in are decreasing, which may lead to a decline in the number of snakes. This problem will be more pronounced in low-income countries and tropical regions. Meanwhile, the distribution range of venomous snakes may also expand, posing a greater risk to public health g (Figure 1) (Lourenco-de-Moraes et al., 2019; Martinez et al., 2024; Pilliod et al., 2024). Figure 1 Expected changes in the range size of the snakes in the Atlantic Forest Hotspot due to the future climate effects (Adopted from Lourenco-de-Moraes et al., 2019) Image caption: Range size for oviparous species in the current time (a) and 2080 (b) and for viviparous species in the current time (c) and 2080; (d): Arrows indicate the size class harbouring the mode of observations in the histogram of the current time (Adopted from Lourenco-de-Moraes et al., 2019) If abiotic (in terms of climate) and biological (such as whether prey is easily accessible) factors are added to the model, the prediction effect of SDMs will become better. For instance, the model of the grass snake (Natrix Natrix) shows that temperature and the number of prey species are the most significant factors influencing its distribution. After future climate warming, the distribution range of grass snakes may move northward or shrink significantly, depending on their ability to spread (Michailidou et al., 2021). However, the accuracy of SDMs may be affected by the selected climate data, microclimate conditions or physiological information, which indicates that it is important to carefully select and verify the model (Lembrechts et al., 2018; Abdulwahab et al., 2022; Anderson et al., 2023). 5.2 Zonal diversity gradient: energy and climate effects Macroscopic ecological models all reveal the latitudinal diversity pattern of snakes: the tropical regions are warm and humid, with the largest number of snake species. The further one goes towards the poles, the fewer species there are. This rule is the result of the combined effect of energy supply (solar radiation, temperature) and climate
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