International Journal of Molecular Zoology, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 69-77 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmz 75 and unique morphologies such as frontal tumors of Chinese geese (Chen et al., 2023; Gao et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2023). These discoveries have enabled people to have a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms behind the domestication and breed formation of geese. Population genome studies also show that domestic geese have two independent origins. Most Chinese geese originate from wild geese, while European geese come from gray geese. Furthermore, the research also found that gene exchange and hybridization often occur between wild goose flocks and domestic geese (Heikkinen et al., 2019; Wen et al., 2022; Chen et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2023). Studies also show that the genetic diversity of native geese in China is usually higher than that of European geese, which provides favorable conditions for future conservation and breeding (Jing et al., 2022). 6.2 Existing challenges: unclear origin and limited genomic data Although these advancements have been made, there are still some difficulties. It is still unclear exactly when, where and by what methods domestic geese were domesticated. Part of the reason is that the sample collection of global goose breeds is incomplete and ancient DNA data is relatively scarce (Chen et al., 2023). Many studies have only focused on certain specific breeds. There are still gaps in people's understanding of all the diversity and population history of domestic geese, especially in regions such as the Eastern Mediterranean and Central Asia (Heikkinen et al., 2019; Wen et al., 2022). Another major problem is that many goose breeds do not have high-quality chromosomal level genome assembly, which affects the conduct of fine genetic analysis and makes it difficult for people to fully understand the selection characteristics of geese (Li et al., 2020; Jing et al., 2022). The persistent gene flow and hybridization between wild geese and domestic geese have complicated the reconstruction of domestication events and reproductive history, making it difficult to distinguish whether it is ancient gene infiltration or recent breed mixing (Heikkinen et al., 2019; Wen et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2023). 6.3 Interdisciplinary research and global population genetics Future research on domestic goose domestication will benefit from an interdisciplinary approach that combines genomics, archaeology, ecology and historical records. The analysis of ancient DNA, the expansion of the sample range of wild goose flocks and domestic goose flocks, and the use of advanced sequencing techniques all contribute to solving the unclarified problems such as domestication centers, migration routes, and the impact of human management on genetic diversity (Heikkinen et al., 2019; Wen et al., 2022). Combining genetic data with archaeological and isotopic evidence can provide a more detailed understanding of the time and background of domestication events (Eda et al., 2022; Jing et al., 2022). With the support of large-scale resequencing and pan-genome resources, global population genetics research is expected to reveal the evolutionary history of goose breeds on various continents. Such studies can not only provide a scientific basis for conservation strategies, but also promote the development of molecular marker-assisted breeding, which is conducive to the sustainable management of genetic resources to meet the demands of climate change and agricultural production (Jing et al., 2022; Chen et al., 2023; Gao et al., 2023). With the continuous accumulation of genomic data, this field has met favorable conditions for in-depth exploration of the fundamental and applied issues in the biology of domestic geese and their domestication process. 7 Conclusion The goose is one of the earliest poultry species raised by humans. Evidence shows that the history of raising geese in East Asia can be traced back over 7 000 years, while in Europe, people have been raising geese for several thousand years. The domestication and spread of domestic geese around the world have made significant contributions to agricultural economy, cultural traditions and ecosystems. The ongoing genetic research is still constantly discovering the unique adaptability and breed diversity of wild goose flocks and domestic goose flocks.
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