International Journal of Molecular Zoology, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 69-77 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmz 71 3 Domestication Process 3.1 Behavioral changes: Enhanced docility and reproductive capacity After being domesticated by humans, the behavior of geese has undergone significant changes. The most notable change is that their calls have decreased, they are quieter, and at the same time, they are less afraid of humans. People will select those individuals who are suitable for living in captivity and have a relatively gentle temperament. In this way, domestic geese are more approachable and more accustomed to living with humans than their wild ancestors (Chen et al., 2023). These behavioral changes have also reduced their sensitivity to environmental alterations, and they no longer need to migrate elsewhere to live as they did before. This indicates that they are gradually adapting to the agricultural environment managed by humans (Price, 1999; Kozak, 2019). Another significant behavioral change is the enhanced reproductive capacity. Domestic geese lay more eggs and reach sexual maturity earlier. Compared with wild geese, the egg production of some breeds has even increased by 600% to 1 200%. Their mating methods have changed from one-to-one to one-to-many, and the fertility of some species has declined or even been lost. All these further indicate that domestication has a significant impact on the reproductive behavior of geese (Kozak, 2019; Chen et al., 2023; Gao et al., 2023). 3.2 Phenotypic traits: evolution of feather color, body size, and growth rate The appearance and characteristics of geese have become more diverse, which is a very obvious manifestation after they were domesticated. The most prominent change among them is that the color of the feathers is different. The feather colors of domestic geese are particularly diverse, and white feathers that are rarely seen on wild geese have also appeared (Figurr 1) (Ren et al., 2021; Wen et al., 2021). This difference is usually related to people's cultural preferences and the choice of certain characteristics, such as some feathers being easier to collect or having special symbolic meanings (Kozak, 2019; Azalou et al., 2024). Figure 1 Images of swan geese (Anser cygnoides) sequenced in this study showing their feather color phenotypes There have also been significant changes in the size and growth rate of geese. Domestic geese are usually larger in size, and some breeds weigh several times as much as their wild ancestors. Through selective breeding, people have made geese grow faster, have more developed muscles, and their skeletal structure has also changed, such as shorter wings and stronger legs. All these are to adapt to the captive life without migration() (Kozak, 2019; Chen etal., 2023; Gao etal., 2023; Azalou etal., 2024). These changes have increased the meat production and overall production capacity of geese. 3.3 Molecular mechanisms: genes and genetic diversity related to domestication From a genetic perspective, domestication has left obvious traces in the genome of geese. Some important genes are related to functions such as the nervous system (associated with behavior and docility), immunity, metabolism, vision, bone development, and oxygen transport, which indicates that geese have gradually adapted to artificial breeding and management (Gao et al., 2023; Qi et al., 2025). For instance, the EXT1 gene is associated with the protrusion morphology of the forehead of Chinese geese, while the CSMD1 and LHCGR genes affect the hatching and reproductive performance of geese (Chen et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2023).
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