International Journal of Molecular Zoology, 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 315-325 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmz 317 prices of feed ingredients necessitate dynamic feed formulation models to optimize costs while maintaining nutritional adequacy. Figure 1 Goats fed with feed 3.3 Use of by-products and alternative feed sources to reduce costs Incorporating by-products and alternative feed sources into goat diets can significantly reduce feeding costs without compromising production efficiency. By-products such as brewer's grain, citrus pulp, and tomato fruits have been successfully used to replace conventional ingredients in goat diets, resulting in lower feed costs and improved nutrient utilization (Romero-Huelva et al., 2017). Similarly, the inclusion of cocoa bean shell in goat diets has shown promise in reducing diet costs while maintaining milk production performance (Renna et al., 2022). Furthermore, using feed leftovers from dairy cows as a supplement for goats has been demonstrated to enhance reproductive performance and reduce feed waste, promoting a circular economy approach (Machado-Ramos et al., 2023). These strategies not only lower feed costs but also contribute to environmental sustainability by reducing food-feed competition and waste (Lee et al., 2014; Ertl et al., 2015; Karlsson et al., 2018). 4 Feed Formulation Strategies 4.1 Balancing nutritional needs with economic viability Balancing the nutritional needs of goats with economic viability is a critical aspect of feed formulation. The goal is to provide adequate nutrients to support optimal growth, reproduction, and health while minimizing costs. One effective strategy is the use of precision feeding, which tailors diets to the specific needs of individual animals or groups, thereby improving nutrient utilization and reducing waste (Șonea et al., 2023). For instance, reducing crude protein content in diets and supplementing with synthetic amino acids can enhance nitrogen efficiency and
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