International Journal of Molecular Zoology 2024, Vol.14, No.4, 197-210 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmz 201 protection against pathogens and promotes longevity. For instance, the transcription factor SKN-1 in Caenorhabditis elegans is crucial for pathogen resistance and is activated in response to environmental stressors, highlighting the importance of immune regulation in adaptation (Papp et al., 2012). Additionally, the evolutionary history of the Toll-like receptor (TLR) gene family across vertebrates underscores the role of immune genes in adapting to various pathogenic environments, with specific adaptations observed in different vertebrate clades (Liu et al., 2019). Figure 2 Older painted turtles exhibit greater levels of natural antibodies than do younger individuals across sexes (P=0.021) (Adopted from Judson et al., 2020) Image caption: Relationship between z-transformed age (zAge) and the residuals of natural antibody titer in response to rabbit red blood cells across painted turtles measured in this study (N=115). Residuals were calculated from the model excluding zAge. The equation of the line of best fit and R2 are shown on the plot. Scale bars beneath the x-axis represent the ages corresponding to the minimum, median and maximum zAge shown in the plot for females, juveniles and males (Adopted from Judson et al., 2020) 4.2 Genetic adaptations in immune function Genetic adaptations in immune function are pivotal for the longevity and disease resistance observed in long-lived vertebrates. Comparative studies have shown that adaptive genetic factors control longevity and disease resistance, suggesting that these traits are maintained by natural selection (Omotoso et al., 2021). The evolution of the TLR gene family, which includes ancient membrane-bound sensors that detect and defend against pathogens, further illustrates the genetic basis of immune adaptations. Positive selection acting on specific codons within TLR genes indicates host-pathogen coevolutionary interactions, which are essential for the immune function of vertebrates.
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