International Journal of Molecular Zoology 2024, Vol.14, No.4, 233-243 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmz 237 4 Behavioral Factors Contributing to Differential Infection 4.1 Social behavior and disease transmission Social behavior plays a critical role in the transmission of infectious diseases among wildlife populations. Individuals that are more socially active or occupy central positions within social networks are often at higher risk of infection due to increased contact rates with conspecifics. For instance, in a study on red-capped mangabeys, individuals that were central and well-connected within their social networks exhibited a higher risk of gastrointestinal parasite infection (Friant et al., 2016). Similarly, the social structure of host populations, including group size and social interactions, can significantly influence disease dynamics, as demonstrated in various wildlife species (Hawley et al., 2011). The non-random mixing of individuals within social networks can impact the demographic thresholds that determine disease amplification or attenuation, highlighting the importance of considering social behavior in disease management strategies (Silk et al., 2019). 4.2 Foraging and movement patterns Foraging behavior and movement patterns are also crucial determinants of differential infection in wildlife. Animals that forage in specific habitats or exhibit particular movement patterns may experience varying levels of exposure to pathogens. For example, Bewick's swans that foraged in aquatic habitats were found to have a higher risk of avian influenza virus infection compared to those foraging in terrestrial habitats, due to the abiotic requirements of the virus (Hoye et al., 2012). Additionally, urbanization and agriculture can alter wildlife foraging behavior, leading to changes in disease dynamics. Provisioned food sources in human-dominated habitats can either amplify or reduce pathogen transmission depending on factors such as host aggregation and dietary exposure to parasites (Becker et al., 2015). These findings underscore the importance of understanding how foraging and movement behaviors influence pathogen exposure and infection risk in wildlife populations. 4.3 Behavioral avoidance and resistance mechanisms Behavioral avoidance and resistance mechanisms are strategies employed by wildlife to mitigate infection risk. Some individuals may alter their behavior to avoid contact with infected conspecifics or environments that pose a high risk of pathogen exposure. For instance, certain male guppies modify their social behavior to avoid infection, with more susceptible males exhibiting reduced sociality to decrease their risk of parasite transmission (Stephenson, 2019). Additionally, behavioral changes in response to infection, such as sickness behaviors, can influence disease dynamics by reducing contact rates and transmission potential. Understanding these behavioral avoidance and resistance mechanisms is essential for developing effective disease management and conservation strategies, particularly for species threatened by emerging infectious diseases (Brannelly et al., 2020). In summary, behavioral factors such as social behavior, foraging and movement patterns, and behavioral avoidance mechanisms play significant roles in influencing susceptibility and resistance to infections in wildlife. These behaviors can modulate both exposure to pathogens and the likelihood of infection, thereby shaping the dynamics of disease transmission within and among wildlife populations. 5 Microbiome Influence on Disease Susceptibility 5.1 Microbiome diversity and pathogen defense Microbiome diversity plays a crucial role in the defense against pathogens. Studies have shown that higher microbiome richness is often correlated with increased resistance to infections. For instance, research on the frog Rana sierrae demonstrated that populations with higher skin microbiome richness were more likely to persist in the presence of the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) (Jani et al., 2017). Similarly, the gut microbiome diversity in European common frogs (Rana temporaria) was linked to higher survival rates when exposed to the Ranavirus, suggesting that a diverse microbiome can enhance disease resistance (Harrison et al., 2019). However, this relationship is not always straightforward. In bumblebees (Bombus terrestris), higher gut microbiota diversity was associated with lower resistance to the intestinal parasite Crithidia bombi, indicating that the specific composition of the microbiome, rather than just its diversity, is critical for effective pathogen defense (Näpflin and Schmid-Hempel, 2018).
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