International Journal of Molecular Zoology 2024, Vol.14, No.3, 128-140 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmz 132 Figure 2 Summary of glycoepitopes and their abundance in the N-glycome of the brittle star O. savignyi (Adopted from Eckmair et al., 2020) Image caption: A, based on fluorescence intensities, 30% of N-glycans are neutral, and 70% carry an anionic moiety. Within these classes, 92% of the neutral N-glycans are classical oligomannosidic Man5-9GlcNAc2 structures, but neutral glycans with extra glucose and unknown hexose residues are also present, in addition to neutral core α1,3-fucosylated, hybrid, and biantennary glycans; antennal galactosylation was solely detected in a β1,3 linkage. Within the acidic N-glycan pool, sialylation (solely N-glycolylneuraminic acid) is the major anionic modification, with up to three sialylated antennae being detected; 20% of the sialylated structures are disialylated (one on Gal, one on GlcNAc) to result in sialyl- Lewis C epitopes (gray box). 5% of sialylated structures are also sulfated, and 20% of NeuGc residues are methylated. Glycans with just sulfation are less abundant, and those displaying phosphorylation account for just 1% of the acidic pool. B, simplified glyco-evolutionary scheme showing the occurrence of selected antennal elements in protostomes and deuterostomes (Adopted from Eckmair et al., 2020) 5 Molecular Markers and Genetic Diversity 5.1 Types of molecular markers used in systematics Molecular markers are essential tools in systematics for assessing genetic diversity and understanding evolutionary relationships among species. Various types of molecular markers have been employed, each with its specific applications and advantages. Commonly used markers include: Microsatellites (SSRs): These are short, repetitive DNA sequences that are highly polymorphic and widely used for population genetic studies due to their high mutation rates and codominant inheritance (Kindie, 2021; Yi et al., 2023). Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs): SNPs are single base-pair variations in the DNA sequence. They are abundant throughout the genome and provide high-resolution data for genetic diversity and population structure analysis (Steele and Pires, 2011; Yi et al., 2023; Wenne, 2023). Amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs): AFLPs are used for DNA fingerprinting and assessing genetic variation. They are particularly useful for species with limited genomic information (Kindie, 2021). Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD): RAPD markers are used for genetic mapping and diversity studies. They are quick and cost-effective but have lower reproducibility compared to other markers (Kindie, 2021).
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