International Journal of Molecular Zoology 2024, Vol.14, No.3, 182-196 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmz 184 environments reveals that urban populations exhibit higher behavioral flexibility, which may be crucial for their success in rapidly changing environments (Mazza et al., 2020). These adaptations often involve changes in social behaviors, such as increased vigilance and altered group dynamics, to enhance survival in new and challenging habitats. 3.3 Predation avoidance and foraging strategies Predation avoidance and foraging strategies are vital for mammalian survival, especially in environments with fluctuating predator pressures and resource availability. The study on the foraging behaviors of aerial predators like the boobies demonstrates the plasticity and flexibility in their foraging strategies, allowing them to adapt to diverse and changing environmental conditions (Gilmour et al., 2018). Additionally, the research on anti-predator behaviors in large herbivores such as impala, wildebeest, and zebra shows that these animals employ a range of strategies, including flight, vigilance, and alarm-calling, which are modulated based on predator characteristics and perceived risk levels (Figure 1) (Palmer and Packer, 2021). These adaptive behaviors are crucial for minimizing predation risk while optimizing foraging efficiency. Figure 1 Anti-predator behavioral strategies adopted by focal prey species relative to predator traits (Adopted from Palmer and Packer, 2021) Image caption: Impala relied on the same suite of behaviors, modulating the intensity of their response relative to multiple predator traits. Wildebeest altered the type and intensity of response, but only responded to predator capture success. Zebra adjusted both the type and intensity of behaviors performed in response to multiple characterizations of threat. Colored blocks correspond to predator traits that were strongly supported to affect response performance with +/- indicating the direction of the response. Relative predator density was never a significant driver of anti-predator tactics and is therefore unlisted (Adopted from Palmer and Packer, 2021) The research of Palmer et al. (2021) compares the anti-predator behaviors of impalas, wildebeests, and zebras in response to various predator traits. Impalas consistently use the same set of behaviors, adjusting their intensity based on predator attributes, such as vigilance duration and alarm call frequency. Wildebeests change both the type and intensity of their responses but only in relation to the predator's capture success. Zebras show the most
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