International Journal of Molecular Zoology 2024, Vol.14, No.3, 128-140 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmz 129 understanding of invertebrate evolution; and identify key functional traits that mediate the responses of invertebrates to environmental changes and their effects on ecosystem services. This study hope to enhance the understanding of the evolutionary dynamics of invertebrates and their resilience to geological changes, thereby contributing to the broader field of evolutionary biology and conservation. 2 Geological Changes and Their Impact on Invertebrate Evolution 2.1 Major geological events (e.g., plate tectonics, volcanic activity) Geological events such as plate tectonics and volcanic activity have played a significant role in shaping the evolutionary pathways of invertebrates. The movement of tectonic plates can lead to the formation of new habitats and the isolation of populations, which in turn drives speciation and diversification. For instance, the Cenomanian-Turonian succession in Wadi Tarfa, Egypt, reveals how sea-level fluctuations influenced the community structure of benthic invertebrates, with different species thriving during transgressive and regressive phases (Abdelhady et al., 2020). Volcanic activity can also create new landforms and alter existing habitats, providing new ecological niches for invertebrates to exploit. 2.2 Climate shifts and habitat transformations Climate shifts have had profound impacts on invertebrate evolution by altering habitats and the availability of resources. During the last deglacial warming, for example, there was a significant shift in the mollusk fauna from cold-tolerant species to warmth-adapted species in the Chinese Loess Plateau. This shift was closely linked to changes in vegetation, highlighting the interdependency between plant and invertebrate communities (Dong et al., 2020). Similarly, freshwater invertebrates have shown both evolutionary and plastic responses to climate change, with changes in phenology and body size being driven by temperature increases (Stoks et al., 2013). These examples underscore the importance of climate as a driver of evolutionary change in invertebrates. 2.3 Fossil evidence and evolutionary milestones Fossil records provide crucial insights into the evolutionary milestones of invertebrates in response to geological changes. The fossil evidence from the Cenomanian-Turonian period in Wadi Tarfa illustrates how invertebrate communities adapted to long-term sea-level changes, with different species dominating during various phases of transgression and regression (Abdelhady et al., 2020). Additionally, the study of ice-binding proteins (IBPs) in intertidal invertebrates suggests that these proteins evolved multiple times in response to freezing conditions, highlighting the role of environmental pressures in driving molecular evolution (Box et al., 2022). These findings demonstrate how fossil evidence can help researchers understand the evolutionary responses of invertebrates to past geological and climatic events. 3 Advances in Molecular Systematics 3.1 Techniques in DNA sequencing and genomics The advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS) has revolutionized the field of molecular systematics by significantly reducing the cost and time required for sequencing, thereby enabling the generation of large-scale genomic data. This has facilitated the inclusion of multiple genes and even whole genomes in phylogenetic studies, providing a more comprehensive understanding of evolutionary relationships. For instance, the use of shotgun sequencing to assemble mitochondrial genomes from complex ecological mixtures has proven effective in overcoming taxonomic impediments and expanding the phylogenetic representation of various lineages (Crampton-Platt et al., 2015). Additionally, the development of exon-capture systems has allowed for the generation of extensive data matrices from museum samples, further enhancing the robustness and comprehensiveness of phylogenetic trees (O’hara et al., 2017). These advancements underscore the transformative impact of NGS on molecular systematics, enabling more detailed and accurate reconstructions of evolutionary histories. 3.2 Phylogenetic analysis and evolutionary trees Phylogenetic analysis has greatly benefited from the integration of molecular data, leading to more robust and statistically supported evolutionary trees. The use of multilocus analyses and genome-scale data has challenged traditional views and provided new insights into the relationships among various taxa (Young and Gillung, 2020).
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