International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 227-234 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr 231 the Philippines has provided baseline data essential for developing targeted control programs, although the high prevalence of these pathogens indicates the need for ongoing surveillance and intervention. The vaccination trials in China have shown promise in reducing schistosomiasis transmission, suggesting that vaccination could be a key component of integrated control strategies. These experiences underscore the importance of a multifaceted approach, combining early detection, targeted treatment, vaccination, and continuous surveillance to effectively manage infectious diseases in water buffaloes in South Asia (Silveira et al., 2016). 6 Future Directions in Infectious Disease Management 6.1 Advancements in diagnostics Recent advancements in diagnostic techniques have significantly improved the detection and management of infectious diseases in water buffalo (Huang and Lin, 2024). For instance, the development of the recombinase polymerase amplification-lateral flow dipstick (RPA-LF) assay for Babesia orientalis has shown high sensitivity and specificity, making it a valuable tool for rapid field detection (An et al., 2021). Similarly, the use of glutathione-S-transferase (GST) as a diagnostic antigen for liver amphistome Gigantocotyle explanatum has demonstrated high immunogenicity and specificity, providing a reliable alternative to traditional fecal egg count methods (Rehman et al., 2020). Additionally, molecular assays have been employed to detect and characterize tick-borne pathogens such as Anaplasma marginale, Babesia bovis, and Babesia bigemina, offering detailed insights into the prevalence and genetic diversity of these pathogens (Galon et al., 2019). 6.2 Innovative disease prevention methods Innovative approaches to disease prevention are crucial for managing infectious diseases in water buffalo. The use of immunophenotyping to understand lymphocyte alterations in buffalo with brucellosis has opened new avenues for targeted immunotherapies (Grandoni et al., 2023). Experimental studies have also shown that water buffaloes exhibit mitigated clinical symptoms to Babesia bovis infections, suggesting that these animals possess efficient innate immune mechanisms that could be harnessed for developing new preventive strategies (Benítez et al., 2018). Furthermore, the identification of specific molecular markers and the development of vaccines against pathogens like Babesia orientalis are ongoing efforts aimed at reducing the incidence of these diseases (He et al., 2017). 6.3 International collaboration and policy development International collaboration and policy development are essential for the effective management of infectious diseases in water buffalo. The high seroprevalence of Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in water buffaloes in southern Italy highlights the need for coordinated efforts to address parasitic infections that impact reproductive health (Ciuca et al., 2020). The first molecular detection and characterization of tick-borne pathogens in the Philippines underscore the importance of global surveillance and data sharing to craft effective disease prevention programs. Additionally, the field evaluation of the interferon-gamma assay for tuberculosis diagnosis in Italy demonstrates the potential benefits of adopting standardized diagnostic criteria across different regions (Martucciello et al., 2020). Collaborative research and policy initiatives can facilitate the development of comprehensive disease management strategies, ensuring the health and productivity of water buffalo populations worldwide. 7 Concluding Remarks The review of current control strategies for infectious diseases in water buffalo has highlighted several critical points. Firstly, parasitic infections such as those caused by Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii are significant contributors to reproductive issues, including abortion and embryonic death, in water buffalo. Additionally, water buffaloes have shown a high resistance to reinfection with Schistosoma japonicum, primarily
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