International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 227-234 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr 229 capabilities, although not complete protection against wild-type BuHV-1 (Martucciello et al., 2023). Additionally, research into the immune responses of water buffalo against Schistosoma japonicumlarvae has provided crucial insights for vaccine design, suggesting that a transmission-blocking vaccine could significantly aid in controlling schistosomiasis (McWilliam et al., 2013). The self-cure phenomenon observed in water buffaloes infected with S. japonicum, where the worm burden drops sharply due to immune responses, also highlights the potential for developing effective vaccines targeting this parasite. 3.2 Antimicrobial and antiparasitic treatments Antimicrobial and antiparasitic treatments are essential in managing infections in water buffalo. Praziquantel (PZQ) is commonly used to treat schistosomiasis, and studies have shown that water buffaloes develop significant resistance to reinfection after treatment, primarily due to acquired immunity (He et al., 2018). For Trypanosoma evansi infection, Berenil® has demonstrated a 100% cure rate, making it a highly effective treatment option, whereas Trypamidium® showed only a 40% cure rate (Nguyen et al., 2013). These treatments are crucial in reducing the prevalence and impact of parasitic diseases in water buffalo populations. 3.3 Biosecurity measures Biosecurity measures play a vital role in preventing the spread of infectious diseases among water buffalo. In China, control strategies for schistosomiasis include barrier farming to prevent grazing in transmission areas and replacing water buffaloes with mechanized tractors to reduce the risk of infection (Li et al., 2014). Additionally, the molecular characterization of foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) in Egyptian water buffaloes has highlighted the importance of monitoring and controlling new viral strains to prevent outbreaks (Damaty et al., 2021). Implementing strict biosecurity protocols, such as regular health screenings, quarantine measures for new or sick animals, and maintaining clean and hygienic farm environments, can significantly reduce the risk of disease transmission (Kumar et al., 2021). 4 Challenges in Disease Control 4.1 Lack of veterinary infrastructure The control of infectious diseases in water buffalo is significantly hampered by inadequate veterinary infrastructure. In many regions, especially in developing countries, there is a shortage of veterinary professionals and facilities equipped to diagnose and treat diseases effectively. This lack of infrastructure leads to underreporting and mismanagement of diseases, exacerbating their impact on livestock health and productivity. For instance, the prevalence of tick-borne pathogens in water buffaloes in the Philippines highlights the need for better diagnostic and treatment facilities to manage these infections effectively (Galon et al., 2019). 4.2 Emerging and re-emerging diseases Emerging and re-emerging diseases pose a continuous threat to water buffalo populations. Diseases such as Trypanosoma vivax, which typically cause asymptomatic infections, can lead to severe outbreaks under stressful conditions like prolonged droughts, as observed in Venezuela (Garcia et al., 2016). Additionally, zoonotic diseases such as leptospirosis, brucellosis, and bovine tuberculosis not only affect animal health but also pose significant public health risks (Martucciello et al., 2021; Fang, 2024). The emergence of these diseases often goes unnoticed until they cause substantial economic losses and health issues, underscoring the need for vigilant monitoring and rapid response strategies. 4.3 Socioeconomic and cultural factors Socioeconomic and cultural factors also play a crucial role in the control of infectious diseases in water buffalo. In many regions, traditional farming practices and the close interaction between humans and animals facilitate the
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