International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 254-260 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr 256 clinical symptoms in highly stressed animals (Boshra et al., 2015). These traditional vaccines have been crucial in managing goat diseases, but they often come with challenges such as potential side effects and the risk of disease spread. 3.2 Modern vaccine technologies Modern vaccine technologies have introduced innovative approaches such as recombinant and vectored vaccines. For example, a recombinant adenovirus expressing the haemagglutinin of PPRV has been developed as a DIVA (differentiating infected from vaccinated animals) vaccine, which not only induces strong immune responses but also allows for differentiation between infected and vaccinated animals (Herbert et al., 2014). Additionally, a multi-antigenic adenoviral-vectored vaccine has been shown to enhance the protective effects of the traditional BCG vaccine against tuberculosis in goats, reducing lesion volume and bacterial load (De Val et al., 2013). These advancements highlight the potential of modern technologies to improve vaccine efficacy and safety. 3.3 Innovations in vaccine delivery systems Innovations in vaccine delivery systems have focused on enhancing the immunogenicity and stability of vaccines. For instance, a multi-epitope subunit vaccine against goatpox virus has been designed using an immunoinformatics approach, which includes the use of adjuvants like β-defensin to boost immune responses (Long et al., 2024). This approach ensures that the vaccine is non-allergenic, non-toxic, and capable of inducing robust humoral and cellular immune responses. Furthermore, the use of gene knockout technology to create safer vaccines, such as the IL-10 gene-deleted lumpy skin disease virus, has shown promise in providing protective immunity without causing disease. These innovations in delivery systems are crucial for developing more effective and safer vaccines for goats. 4 Challenges in Vaccine Development 4.1 Pathogen diversity and antigenic variation One of the primary challenges in developing vaccines for major goat diseases is the diversity and antigenic variation of pathogens. For instance, peste des petits ruminants (PPR) virus exhibits significant strain variation, which complicates vaccine development and efficacy (Enchéry et al., 2019). The virulence of different strains, such as the CI89 and MA08 strains of PPR, varies significantly, necessitating robust challenge models to assess vaccine efficacy across different strains. Additionally, the development of vaccines that can differentiate infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA) is crucial for effective disease control and eradication, as seen in the efforts to create DIVA vaccines for PPR (Herbert et al., 2014). 4.2 Regulatory and production barriers Regulatory and production barriers also pose significant challenges in vaccine development. The production of vaccines that meet international standards for safety and efficacy is a complex process that requires rigorous testing and validation. For example, the ARRIAH live attenuated PPRV vaccine, although promising, is not yet endorsed by the World Organization for Animal Health due to its incomplete safety and potency profile (Byadovskaya et al., 2024). Moreover, the need for thermostable vaccines that can withstand varying environmental conditions without losing efficacy is critical, especially in regions with limited cold chain infrastructure (Murr et al., 2020). 4.3 Field application and farmer adoption The successful field application and adoption of vaccines by farmers are essential for controlling goat diseases. However, challenges such as vaccine accessibility, cost, and the need for multiple doses can hinder widespread adoption (De Pinho et al., 2021). For instance, the efficacy of a pentavalent foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) vaccine in goats was demonstrated, but the requirement for specific dosing regimens may limit its practical application in the field (Lazarus et al., 2020). Additionally, farmer education and awareness are crucial for ensuring proper vaccine administration and achieving desired immunization coverage (Singh et al., 2013). The development of vaccines that provide long-lasting immunity with minimal doses can enhance adoption rates among farmers.
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