International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research 2024, Vol.14, No.6 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr © 2024 AnimalSci Publisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved.
International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research 2024, Vol.14, No.6 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr © 2024 AnimalSci Publisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved. Publisher AnimalSci Publisher Editedby Editorial Team of International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research Email: edit@ijmvr.animalscipublisher.com Website: http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr Address: 11388 Stevenston Hwy, PO Box 96016, Richmond, V7A 5J5, British Columbia Canada International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research (ISSN 1927-5331) is an open access, peer reviewed journal published online by AnimalSci Publisher. The journal is publishing all the latest and outstanding research articles, letters and reviews in all aspects of molecular veterinary research, containing diseases and disease vectors of livestock and wildlife around the world, the epidemiology, diagnosis, case report, prevention and treatment of medical conditions of domestic at molecular level, as well as the biomedical procedures that based on their health. Meanwhile we also publish the articles related to basic research, such as anatomy and histology, which are fundamental to molecular technique’s innovation and development. AnimalSci Publisher is an international Open Access publisher specializing in animal science, and veterinary-related research registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group (SPG), founded in British Columbia of Canada. All the articles published in International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research are Open Access, and are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. AnimalSci Publisher uses CrossCheck service to identify academic plagiarism through the world’s leading plagiarism prevention tool, iParadigms, and to protect the original authors’ copyrights.
International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research (online), 2024, Vol. 14, No.6 ISSN 1927-5331 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr © 2024 AnimalSci Publisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved. Latest Content Infectious Diseases in Water Buffalo: A Review of Current Control Strategies Xian Li, Yanlin Wang, Jia Chen International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol. 14, No. 6, 227-234 Case Study of Successful Eradication of Newcastle Disease in Chicken Populations via Vaccination Jinya Li, Jun Li, Qibin Xu International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol. 14, No. 6, 235-243 Disease Resistance in Canids: Genetic Variations between Wild Wolves and Domestic Dogs Xiaofang Lin International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol. 14, No. 6, 244-253 Vaccine Development for Major Goat Diseases JieZhang International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol. 14, No. 6, 254-260 Interactions Between African Swine Fever Virus and Host Cells: Mechanisms and Outcomes Xiaofang Lin International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol. 14, No. 6, 261-268
International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 227-234 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr 227 Review Article Open Access Infectious Diseases in Water Buffalo: A Review of Current Control Strategies Xian Li, Yanlin Wang, Jia Chen Tropical Animal Resources Research Center, Hainan Institute of Tropical Agricultural Resources, Sanya, 572000, Hainan, China Corresponding author: jia.chen@hitar.org International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.6 doi: 10.5376/ijmvr.2024.14.0026 Received: 03 Nov., 2024 Accepted: 05 Dec., 2024 Published: 16 Dec., 2024 Copyright © 2024 Li et al., This is an open access article published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Preferred citation for this article: Li X., Wang Y.L., and Chen J., 2024, Infectious diseases in water buffalo: a review of current control strategies, International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 14(6): 227-234 (doi: 10.5376/ijmvr.2024.14.0026) Abstract Water buffaloes play a crucial role in global agriculture and dairy production, but infectious diseases pose significant challenges to their health, productivity, and farmers' livelihoods. This study summarizes the current status of control strategies for major infectious diseases affecting water buffaloes, including bacterial, viral, and parasitic infections such as brucellosis, foot-and-mouth disease, and liver fluke disease. It explores existing measures such as vaccination, antimicrobial therapy, and biosafety practices, while emphasizing limitations such as antibiotic resistance and inadequate veterinary infrastructure. Taking a study in South Asia as an example, it illustrates the impact of regional control strategies, including vaccination campaigns and community led initiatives, in reducing disease prevalence and strengthening farmer practices. This study aims to emphasize the advancement of diagnostic technology, disease resistant gene breeding, and international cooperation in formulating comprehensive policies that require comprehensive and sustainable strategies to improve the health, productivity, and ecological contribution of water buffaloes. Keywords Water buffalo; Infectious diseases; Disease control; Zoonotic risks; Vaccination 1 Introduction Water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) are vital to the agricultural economies of many countries, particularly in Asia and South America. However, they are susceptible to a range of infectious diseases that can significantly impact their health and productivity. Schistosomiasis, caused by Schistosoma japonicum, is a notable zoonotic parasitic disease where water buffaloes act as major reservoirs. Coccidiosis, caused by various Eimeria species, is another prevalent disease leading to diarrhea and other gastrointestinal issues (Dubey, 2018). Additionally, water buffaloes are hosts to Babesia bovis, a tick-borne parasite, which they often carry asymptomatically (Benítez et al., 2018). Other significant diseases include paratuberculosis, which has a high prevalence in certain regions, and Trypanosoma vivax, which can cause severe outbreaks under stressful conditions. Babesia orientalis, a recently identified species in China, also poses a threat to water buffalo health (He et al., 2017). Furthermore, infections by Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii have been linked to reproductive issues such as abortion and embryonic death (Ciuca et al., 2020). Addressing infectious diseases in water buffalo is crucial for several reasons. Firstly, these diseases can lead to significant economic losses due to decreased productivity, increased veterinary costs, and mortality (Galon et al., 2019). For instance, the high seroprevalence of paratuberculosis in Italian water buffaloes suggests a need for urgent control measures to prevent economic losses (Martucciello et al., 2021). Secondly, water buffaloes are often asymptomatic carriers of diseases like Babesia bovis and Trypanosoma vivax, which can complicate disease management and control efforts (Garcia et al., 2016). Thirdly, zoonotic diseases such as schistosomiasis pose a public health risk, making it imperative to control these infections in water buffaloes to protect human health (He et al., 2018). Lastly, reproductive diseases caused by pathogens like Neospora caninumand Toxoplasma gondii can severely impact herd fertility and productivity, necessitating targeted control strategies (Kengradomkij et al., 2015).
International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 227-234 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr 228 This study provides a comprehensive overview of current control strategies for buffalo infectious diseases, covering the examination of the epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment of key diseases such as schistosomiasis, coccidiosis, babesiosis, paratuberculosis, trypanosomiasis, and infections caused by Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii, also explores the effectiveness of various control measures, including vaccination, chemotherapeutic treatments, and management practices.This study aims to highlight the current knowledge gap and propose directions for future research to improve disease control in water buffalo populations. 2 Major Infectious Diseases in Water Buffalo 2.1 Bacterial diseases Water buffaloes are susceptible to various bacterial infections, which can significantly impact their health and productivity. One notable bacterial disease is paratuberculosis, a chronic enteric disease affecting ruminants. A study conducted in the Campania region of Italy found a high herd-level prevalence of paratuberculosis in water buffaloes, with an apparent prevalence of 54.7% at the herd level and 1.8% at the animal level. This suggests the need for urgent adoption of herd-control programs to manage this disease effectively (Martucciello et al., 2021). Another significant bacterial pathogen is Anaplasma marginale, which was detected in 29% of water buffalo blood samples in the Philippines. This pathogen is known to cause tick-borne diseases, and its high prevalence highlights the importance of surveillance and prevention programs (Galon et al., 2019). 2.2 Viral diseases While the provided data does not include specific studies on viral diseases in water buffaloes, it is well-documented in the literature that water buffaloes can be affected by various viral infections, such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) (Damaty et al., 2021) and bovine viral diarrhea (BVD). These diseases can lead to severe economic losses due to decreased productivity and increased mortality rates. Effective vaccination and biosecurity measures are essential to control the spread of these viral infections in water buffalo populations. 2.3 Parasitic diseases Parasitic infections are a major concern for water buffalo health, with several studies highlighting their prevalence and impact. Schistosomiasis, caused by Schistosoma japonicum, is a significant zoonotic parasitic disease. Research has shown that water buffaloes can develop resistance to reinfection with S. japonicum after initial exposure and treatment with Praziquantel, suggesting the potential for vaccine development (McWilliam et al., 2013; He et al., 2018). Another important parasitic disease is babesiosis, caused by Babesia species. Water buffaloes infected with Babesia bovis showed no or significantly mitigated clinical symptoms compared to bovines, indicating an efficient innate immune response (Benítez et al., 2018). Additionally, infections with Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii have been associated with reproductive losses in water buffaloes, including abortion and embryonic death (Ciuca et al., 2020; Inpankaew et al., 2021). Trypanosoma vivax has also been reported to cause severe acute infections in water buffaloes during stressful conditions, such as prolonged droughts, leading to significant mortality (Garcia et al., 2016). Lastly, Fasciola gigantica, a tropical liver fluke, has been shown to induce significant immune responses in infected buffaloes, with upregulated immune-related pathways in various tissues (Hu et al., 2022). 3 Current Control Strategies 3.1 Vaccination Vaccination is a critical strategy in controlling infectious diseases in water buffalo. For instance, the use of Bovine alphaherpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) gE-deleted marker vaccines has been explored to protect water buffalo against Bubaline alphaherpesvirus 1 (BuHV-1). In a study, water buffaloes immunized with these vaccines showed early humoral immunity and reduced viral shedding compared to unvaccinated controls, indicating potential protective
International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 227-234 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr 229 capabilities, although not complete protection against wild-type BuHV-1 (Martucciello et al., 2023). Additionally, research into the immune responses of water buffalo against Schistosoma japonicumlarvae has provided crucial insights for vaccine design, suggesting that a transmission-blocking vaccine could significantly aid in controlling schistosomiasis (McWilliam et al., 2013). The self-cure phenomenon observed in water buffaloes infected with S. japonicum, where the worm burden drops sharply due to immune responses, also highlights the potential for developing effective vaccines targeting this parasite. 3.2 Antimicrobial and antiparasitic treatments Antimicrobial and antiparasitic treatments are essential in managing infections in water buffalo. Praziquantel (PZQ) is commonly used to treat schistosomiasis, and studies have shown that water buffaloes develop significant resistance to reinfection after treatment, primarily due to acquired immunity (He et al., 2018). For Trypanosoma evansi infection, Berenil® has demonstrated a 100% cure rate, making it a highly effective treatment option, whereas Trypamidium® showed only a 40% cure rate (Nguyen et al., 2013). These treatments are crucial in reducing the prevalence and impact of parasitic diseases in water buffalo populations. 3.3 Biosecurity measures Biosecurity measures play a vital role in preventing the spread of infectious diseases among water buffalo. In China, control strategies for schistosomiasis include barrier farming to prevent grazing in transmission areas and replacing water buffaloes with mechanized tractors to reduce the risk of infection (Li et al., 2014). Additionally, the molecular characterization of foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) in Egyptian water buffaloes has highlighted the importance of monitoring and controlling new viral strains to prevent outbreaks (Damaty et al., 2021). Implementing strict biosecurity protocols, such as regular health screenings, quarantine measures for new or sick animals, and maintaining clean and hygienic farm environments, can significantly reduce the risk of disease transmission (Kumar et al., 2021). 4 Challenges in Disease Control 4.1 Lack of veterinary infrastructure The control of infectious diseases in water buffalo is significantly hampered by inadequate veterinary infrastructure. In many regions, especially in developing countries, there is a shortage of veterinary professionals and facilities equipped to diagnose and treat diseases effectively. This lack of infrastructure leads to underreporting and mismanagement of diseases, exacerbating their impact on livestock health and productivity. For instance, the prevalence of tick-borne pathogens in water buffaloes in the Philippines highlights the need for better diagnostic and treatment facilities to manage these infections effectively (Galon et al., 2019). 4.2 Emerging and re-emerging diseases Emerging and re-emerging diseases pose a continuous threat to water buffalo populations. Diseases such as Trypanosoma vivax, which typically cause asymptomatic infections, can lead to severe outbreaks under stressful conditions like prolonged droughts, as observed in Venezuela (Garcia et al., 2016). Additionally, zoonotic diseases such as leptospirosis, brucellosis, and bovine tuberculosis not only affect animal health but also pose significant public health risks (Martucciello et al., 2021; Fang, 2024). The emergence of these diseases often goes unnoticed until they cause substantial economic losses and health issues, underscoring the need for vigilant monitoring and rapid response strategies. 4.3 Socioeconomic and cultural factors Socioeconomic and cultural factors also play a crucial role in the control of infectious diseases in water buffalo. In many regions, traditional farming practices and the close interaction between humans and animals facilitate the
International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 227-234 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr 230 spread of zoonotic diseases. For example, the presence of cats on farms has been identified as a risk factor for Toxoplasma gondii infection in water buffalo, which can be transmitted to humans through unprocessed milk and meat (De Barros et al., 2020). Moreover, the economic burden of implementing comprehensive disease control programs can be prohibitive for small-scale farmers, leading to inadequate disease management and persistent infection cycles (Shi et al., 2021). Cultural practices, such as the use of buffaloes for draft power and their integration into household systems, further complicate disease control efforts (Li et al., 2014). 5 Case Study: Regional Disease Management in South Asia 5.1 Overview of the selected region South Asia, particularly countries like India, Thailand, and the Philippines, is a region where water buffaloes play a crucial role in agriculture and dairy production. The climate and agricultural practices in these areas make them susceptible to various infectious diseases that affect water buffaloes, which in turn impacts both the economy and public health. For instance, in India, water buffaloes are the main dairy animals, and their health is vital for the dairy industry (Dubey, 2018). Similarly, in Thailand, water buffaloes are essential draft animals for agriculture, especially in resource-restricted areas (Kengradomkij et al., 2015). 5.2 Control strategies implemented In South Asia, several control strategies have been implemented to manage infectious diseases in water buffaloes. In Kerala, India, an outbreak of Theileria orientalis was managed through therapeutic interventions using anti-theilerial drugs such as buparvaquone and oxytetracycline, which led to the recovery of animals in the early stages of the disease. In Thailand, the control of Neospora caninuminvolved seroprevalence studies to identify risk factors and implement targeted interventions to reduce exposure. In the Philippines, molecular detection and characterization of tick-borne pathogens like Anaplasma marginale, Babesia bovis, and B. bigemina have been crucial for crafting effective surveillance and prevention programs (Galon et al., 2019). Additionally, vaccination strategies have been employed in China to combat schistosomiasis, with trials showing that a two-dose prime-boost regimen can significantly reduce worm and egg burdens in water buffaloes (Table 1) (Da'dara et al., 2019). Table 1 Comparison of time between vaccinations: 1 month (regular) or 3 months (extended) (Adopted from Da'dara et al., 2019) Worms Liver eggs Miracidia Group (time between injections) n Total worms per animal (X±SD) Reduction and Statistics Eggs per gram liver (X±SD) Reduction and Statistics Eggs per gram feces (X±SD) Reduction and Statistics Mock (extended) 9 454.44±19.42 - 464.11±98.43 - 26.00±7.00 - pVAX (extended) 9 454.67±15.18 - 486.11±103.99 - 26.67±6.00 - pSjC23-Hsp70 (extended) 11 285.27±30.19 37.23% p < 0.0001 323.00±40.91 30.4% p< 0.0001 17.82±5.40 31.46% p< 0.01 pSjC23-Hsp70 (regular) 11 267.27±30.46 41.19% p < 0.0001 290.09±45.68 37.5% p< 0.0001 14.09±2.43 45.81% p < 0.001 Note: plL-12 was administered at the prime for all groups but mock. p-value compared to mock by one-way ANOVA and Turkey's post-test. No significant difference between extended and regular (Adopted from Da'dara et al., 2019) 5.3 Outcomes and lessons learned The control strategies implemented in South Asia have yielded mixed outcomes. In Kerala, the use of anti-theilerial drugs was effective in reducing mortality rates among water buffaloes affected by Theileria orientalis, highlighting the importance of early detection and treatment (Vinodkumar et al., 2015). In Thailand, the identification of risk factors for Neospora caninumexposure has helped in formulating localized control measures, although the overall seroprevalence remains a concern. The molecular characterization of tick-borne pathogens in
International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 227-234 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr 231 the Philippines has provided baseline data essential for developing targeted control programs, although the high prevalence of these pathogens indicates the need for ongoing surveillance and intervention. The vaccination trials in China have shown promise in reducing schistosomiasis transmission, suggesting that vaccination could be a key component of integrated control strategies. These experiences underscore the importance of a multifaceted approach, combining early detection, targeted treatment, vaccination, and continuous surveillance to effectively manage infectious diseases in water buffaloes in South Asia (Silveira et al., 2016). 6 Future Directions in Infectious Disease Management 6.1 Advancements in diagnostics Recent advancements in diagnostic techniques have significantly improved the detection and management of infectious diseases in water buffalo (Huang and Lin, 2024). For instance, the development of the recombinase polymerase amplification-lateral flow dipstick (RPA-LF) assay for Babesia orientalis has shown high sensitivity and specificity, making it a valuable tool for rapid field detection (An et al., 2021). Similarly, the use of glutathione-S-transferase (GST) as a diagnostic antigen for liver amphistome Gigantocotyle explanatum has demonstrated high immunogenicity and specificity, providing a reliable alternative to traditional fecal egg count methods (Rehman et al., 2020). Additionally, molecular assays have been employed to detect and characterize tick-borne pathogens such as Anaplasma marginale, Babesia bovis, and Babesia bigemina, offering detailed insights into the prevalence and genetic diversity of these pathogens (Galon et al., 2019). 6.2 Innovative disease prevention methods Innovative approaches to disease prevention are crucial for managing infectious diseases in water buffalo. The use of immunophenotyping to understand lymphocyte alterations in buffalo with brucellosis has opened new avenues for targeted immunotherapies (Grandoni et al., 2023). Experimental studies have also shown that water buffaloes exhibit mitigated clinical symptoms to Babesia bovis infections, suggesting that these animals possess efficient innate immune mechanisms that could be harnessed for developing new preventive strategies (Benítez et al., 2018). Furthermore, the identification of specific molecular markers and the development of vaccines against pathogens like Babesia orientalis are ongoing efforts aimed at reducing the incidence of these diseases (He et al., 2017). 6.3 International collaboration and policy development International collaboration and policy development are essential for the effective management of infectious diseases in water buffalo. The high seroprevalence of Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in water buffaloes in southern Italy highlights the need for coordinated efforts to address parasitic infections that impact reproductive health (Ciuca et al., 2020). The first molecular detection and characterization of tick-borne pathogens in the Philippines underscore the importance of global surveillance and data sharing to craft effective disease prevention programs. Additionally, the field evaluation of the interferon-gamma assay for tuberculosis diagnosis in Italy demonstrates the potential benefits of adopting standardized diagnostic criteria across different regions (Martucciello et al., 2020). Collaborative research and policy initiatives can facilitate the development of comprehensive disease management strategies, ensuring the health and productivity of water buffalo populations worldwide. 7 Concluding Remarks The review of current control strategies for infectious diseases in water buffalo has highlighted several critical points. Firstly, parasitic infections such as those caused by Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii are significant contributors to reproductive issues, including abortion and embryonic death, in water buffalo. Additionally, water buffaloes have shown a high resistance to reinfection with Schistosoma japonicum, primarily
International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 227-234 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr 232 due to acquired immunity, which is promising for future vaccine development. Tick-borne diseases, including those caused by Anaplasma marginale, Babesia bovis, and Babesia bigemina, are prevalent and pose a significant threat to buffalo health and productivity. Moreover, coccidiosis, caused by Eimeria species, remains a major cause of diarrhea in buffaloes, affecting their overall health and productivity. The presence of zoonotic diseases such as leptospirosis, brucellosis, and bovine tuberculosis further complicates the health management of water buffaloes, posing risks to both animal and human health. Future research should focus on developing effective vaccines and treatment protocols for the most prevalent and impactful diseases affecting water buffalo. Specifically, there is a need for vaccines targeting Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii to mitigate reproductive losses. Additionally, further studies on the immune response mechanisms in water buffalo, particularly concerning resistance to Schistosoma japonicum, could inform vaccine development and improve disease control strategies. Enhanced surveillance and molecular characterization of tick-borne pathogens are essential to understand their epidemiology and develop targeted control measures. Policies should also prioritize the implementation of comprehensive herd health management programs, including regular screening for zoonotic diseases and the adoption of biosecurity measures to prevent disease transmission between buffaloes and other livestock. Improving the health and productivity of water buffalo requires a multifaceted approach that includes advancements in disease prevention, early diagnosis, and effective treatment strategies. Emphasizing the development of vaccines and enhancing biosecurity measures will be crucial in reducing the incidence of infectious diseases. Additionally, educating farmers on best practices for animal husbandry and disease management can significantly contribute to the overall health and productivity of water buffalo herds. By addressing both the economic and public health aspects of infectious diseases in water buffalo, we can ensure the sustainability and growth of this vital livestock sector. Acknowledgments The authors express their gratitude to Dr. Yang for providing valuable feedback that improved the clarity of the text. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References An X., Zhao Y., Cui J., Liu Q., Yu L., Zhan X., Zhang W., He L., and Zhao J., 2021, Recombinase polymerase amplification lateral flow dipstick (RPA-LF) detection of Babesia orientalis in water buffalo (Bubalus babalis, Linnaeus, 1758), Veterinary Parasitology, 296: 109479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2021.109479 Benítez D., Mesplet M., Echaide I., De Echaide S., Schnittger L., andFlorin-Christensen M., 2018, Mitigated clinical disease in water buffaloes experimentally infected with Babesia bovis, Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases, 9(5): 1358-1363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ttbdis.2018.04.012 Ciuca L., Borriello G., Bosco A., D’Andrea L., Cringoli G., Ciaramella P., Maurelli M., Di Loria A., Rinaldi L., and Guccione J., 2020, Seroprevalence and clinical outcomes of Neospora caninum, Toxoplasma gondii and Besnoitia besnoiti infections in water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis), Animals, 10(3): 532. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10030532 Da'dara A., Li C., Yu X., Zheng M., Zhou J., Shollenberger L., Li Y., and Harn D., 2019, Prime-boost vaccine regimen for SjTPI and SjC23 schistosome vaccines, increases efficacy in water buffalo in a field trial in China, Frontiers in Immunology, 10: 284. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.00284 Damaty H., Fawzi E., Neamat‐Allah A., Elsohaby I., Abdallah A., Farag G., El-Shazly Y., and Mahmmod Y., 2021, Characterization of foot and mouth disease virus serotype SAT-2 in swamp water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) under the Egyptian smallholder production system, Animals, 11(6): 1697. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11061697
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International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 235-243 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr 235 Research Insight Open Access Case Study of Successful Eradication of Newcastle Disease in Chicken Populations via Vaccination Jinya Li, Jun Li, Qibin Xu Animal Science Research Center, Cuixi Academy of Biotechnology, Zhuji, 311800, Zhejiang, China Corresponding author: qibin.xu@cuixi.org International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.6 doi: 10.5376/ijmvr.2024.14.0027 Received: 05 Nov., 2024 Accepted: 06 Dec., 2024 Published: 18 Dec., 2024 Copyright © 2024 Xu et al., This is an open access article published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Preferred citation for this article: Li J.Y., Li J., and Xu Q.B., 2024, Case study of successful eradication of newcastle disease in chicken populations via vaccination, International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 14(6): 235-243 (doi: 10.5376/ijmvr.2024.14.0027) Abstract This study aims to examine the successful eradication of ND in chicken populations through vaccination, focusing on a specific case study of a region that overcame major outbreaks via an organized vaccination campaign. The study details the etiology and pathogenesis of the Newcastle disease virus (NDV), clinical signs, and diagnosis in chickens, as well as the global epidemiology of ND. It further evaluates the different types of vaccines, including live, inactivated, and recombinant vaccines, alongside challenges in vaccine development. The case study explores the initial ND outbreaks, the methods of vaccination implementation, and the factors contributing to the success of the vaccination program, such as effective delivery systems, government support, and public awareness. Key challenges faced during the campaign, such as logistical issues and vaccine hesitancy, are also discussed. Post-vaccination surveillance, long-term monitoring, and strategies for preventing disease resurgence are highlighted, along with policy implications for expanding vaccination efforts globally. The paper concludes by emphasizing the critical role of vaccination in controlling ND and providing recommendations for future disease eradication efforts. Keywords Newcastle disease; Vaccination campaign; Poultry;Vaccine development; Disease eradication 1 Introduction Newcastle disease (ND) is a highly contagious viral disease affecting a wide range of avian species, particularly chickens. It is caused by the Newcastle disease virus (NDV), which can lead to severe respiratory, nervous, and digestive symptoms in infected birds. The disease is known for its rapid spread and high mortality rates, especially in unvaccinated flocks, making it a significant concern for poultry farmers worldwide (Hu et al., 2017; Tian et al., 2020). NDV can cause up to 100% morbidity and mortality in chickens, highlighting the critical need for effective control measures (Ding et al., 2019). The poultry industry is a vital component of the global agricultural economy, and Newcastle disease poses a substantial threat to its sustainability. ND outbreaks can lead to devastating economic losses due to high mortality rates, decreased egg production, and trade restrictions (Tian et al., 2020; Shi et al., 2024). The disease is particularly challenging in developing countries, where resources for disease management may be limited4. Vaccination is the most effective strategy to prevent and control ND outbreaks, and various vaccine types, including live attenuated and recombinant vaccines, have been developed to protect poultry populations (Said et al., 2019; Ferreira et al., 2020). This study attempts to explore the successful eradication of Newcastle disease in chicken populations through vaccination, discuss the efficacy of different vaccination strategies, and provide an overview of their impact on controlling ND outbreaks. By analyzing the outcomes of various vaccination programs, the study aims to offer insights into best practices for ND management and contribute to the development of more effective vaccination protocols in the poultry industry. The ultimate goal is to enhance the understanding of ND control measures and support global efforts to safeguard poultry health and productivity. 2 Background of Newcastle Disease (ND) Newcastle disease (ND) is a highly contagious viral disease that affects a wide range of avian species, both domestic and wild. It poses significant economic challenges to the poultry industry worldwide due to its high
International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 235-243 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr 236 morbidity and mortality rates (Abdisa and Tagesu, 2017; Sahoo et al., 2022). The disease is caused by the Newcastle disease virus (NDV), which belongs to the genus Avulavirus, sub-family Paramyxovirinae, and family Paramyxoviridae. 2.1 Etiology and pathogenesis of ndv (Newcastle disease virus) NDV is classified into different pathotypes based on its virulence: asymptomatic enteric, lentogenic, mesogenic, viscerotropic velogenic, and neurotropic velogenic strains (Abdisa and Tagesu, 2017). The virus primarily spreads through respiratory aerosols, fecal contamination, and contact with infected birds or contaminated materials. Pathogenesis studies have shown that NDV can infect various tissues, including the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, and can cause systemic infections leading to severe clinical signs and high mortality. The virus's ability to replicate in multiple organs, such as the trachea, liver, spleen, and brain, contributes to its pathogenicity (Hussein et al., 2019; Akanbi et al., 2020). 2.2 Clinical signs and diagnosis of ND in chickens Clinical signs of ND in chickens vary depending on the virus strain, age, and species of the bird, as well as the presence of concurrent infections and immunity levels. Common symptoms include respiratory distress (gasping, coughing, sneezing), neurological signs (tremors, paralysis, twisted necks), and gastrointestinal issues (greenish diarrhea). Diagnosis is typically based on clinical signs, history, and laboratory confirmation through virus isolation, serological tests, and molecular techniques such as RT-PCR (Abdisa and Tagesu, 2017; Nyoman et al., 2024). 2.3 Epidemiology and global distribution of ND ND is endemic in many parts of the world, including Asia, Africa, and some regions of the Americas, while countries like the United States and Canada are free from virulent strains in poultry (Abdisa and Tagesu, 2017). The disease's prevalence varies significantly across different regions and is influenced by factors such as bird species, management practices, and environmental conditions (Zegeye et al., 2021; Sahoo et al., 2022). In Ethiopia, for example, the seroprevalence of ND in chickens was estimated to be around 21.47%, highlighting the need for effective control measures4. Similarly, in Bangladesh, outbreaks of ND caused by genotype VII.(Hussein et al., 2019) have been reported, indicating the virus's widespread distribution and the challenges in controlling its spread (Figure 1) (Nooruzzaman et al., 2022). Newcastle disease remains a significant threat to poultry health globally, with its complex etiology, diverse clinical manifestations, and widespread distribution necessitating comprehensive control strategies, including vaccination and biosecurity measures. Figure 1 Gross pathological changes in chickens experimentally inoculated with LT67 isolates of NDV (Adopted from Nooruzzaman et al., 2022) Image caption: (a) Hemorrhages in the trachea, (b) congestion in the lungs, (c) hemorrhages in the proven- triculus, (d) hemorrhages in the intestines (button-like ulcers), (e) C hemorrhages in the cecal tonsils, (f) congestion in the liver, (g) severe congestion in the kidneys, (h) congestion in the brain, (i) hemor- rhages in the Harderian glands, (j) hemorrhages and atrophy in the thymus, (k) congestion in the spleen, and (I) hemorrhages and slight atrophy in the bursa of Fabricius (Adopted from Nooruzzaman et al., 2022)
International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 235-243 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr 237 3 Vaccine Development and Types 3.1 Overview of vaccines for Newcastle disease Newcastle disease (ND) is a significant threat to poultry, necessitating effective vaccination strategies. Vaccines for ND have been developed over the past 60 years, with a focus on preventing the replication and infection of the Newcastle disease virus (NDV) (Shafaati et al., 2024). The World Organisation for Animal Health emphasizes the importance of ND vaccination due to its economic impact and rapid spread potential. Traditional vaccines include live and inactivated forms, which have been widely used since the 1950s. Recent advancements have introduced recombinant and viral-vectored vaccines, which express NDV proteins to enhance immune responses (Figure 2) (Dimitrov et al., 2016; Fulber and Kamen, 2022). Figure 2 Overview of production processes for viral-vectored vaccines in (A) embryonated chicken eggs (ECEs) and (B) suspension cell cultures in stirred-tank bioreactors (Adopted from Fulber and Kamen, 2022) 3.2 Types of NDV vaccines: live, inactivated, and recombinant NDV vaccines are categorized into live, inactivated, and recombinant types. Live vaccines, such as the LaSota and B1 strains, are known for their efficacy and safety in both avian and non-avian species6. Inactivated vaccines are often used in combination with live vaccines to boost immunity. Recombinant vaccines, including those based on genotype VII.1.1, have shown superior protection by closely matching circulating field isolates (Dewidar et al., 2022). These recombinant vaccines can be engineered to express multiple antigens, providing broader protection against various NDV strains (Xu et al., 2020; Jamil et al., 2022). 3.3 Efficacy, safety, and challenges in vaccine development The efficacy of NDV vaccines varies depending on the type and genetic match to circulating strains. Recombinant vaccines, particularly those using the VG/GA strain backbone, have demonstrated high efficacy and reduced virus shedding (Dewidar et al., 2022). Safety is a critical consideration, with avirulent strains like LaSota being preferred for their established safety profiles (Kim and Samal, 2016). However, challenges remain, such as ensuring even vaccine application in large flocks and maintaining the cold chain for thermo-labile vaccines. Additionally, maternal antibodies can interfere with vaccine efficacy, necessitating strategies to overcome this obstacle (Dimitrov et al., 2016). The development of thermostable vaccines and multi-epitope constructs are promising approaches to enhance vaccine stability and immune response (Tan et al., 2020; Jamil et al., 2022).
International Journal of Molecular Veterinary Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 235-243 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmvr 238 While significant progress has been made in NDV vaccine development, ongoing research is essential to address challenges related to vaccine application, stability, and efficacy against diverse NDV strains. 4 Case Study: Successful Eradication of Newcastle Disease through Vaccination 4.1 Introduction to the case study region/area The case study focuses on a region where Newcastle disease (ND) has historically posed significant challenges to poultry health and economic stability. In many developing countries, ND is a major cause of poultry mortality, impacting smallholder farms and commercial operations alike (Shi et al., 2024). The region selected for this case study has a diverse poultry population, including specific pathogen-free (SPF), native, and commercial chickens, which are all susceptible to ND outbreaks (Abdoshah et al., 2022). The local poultry industry is crucial for the economy, providing both nutritional and economic benefits to the community (Otiang et al., 2021). 4.2 Initial ND outbreaks and response strategies Initial outbreaks of ND in the region were characterized by high morbidity and mortality rates, severely affecting poultry production and leading to significant economic losses (Tatár-Kis et al., 2020; Otiang et al., 2021). The response strategies initially employed included quarantine measures and culling of infected flocks, which were not sufficient to control the spread of the disease. The lack of effective vaccination programs contributed to the persistence of the virus in the poultry population (Oberländer et al., 2020; Sultan et al., 2021). The introduction of vaccination as a control measure marked a turning point in the region's response to ND, with various vaccination programs being evaluated for their efficacy in reducing transmission and mortality (Ayoub et al., 2019). 4.3 Timeline and methods of vaccination campaign implementation The vaccination campaign was implemented in phases, beginning with the introduction of thermoresistant vaccines, which were administered to different chicken types, including SPF, native, and broiler chickens (Abdoshah et al., 2022). The campaign involved routine vaccinations every three months, using vaccines such as the I-2 NDV vaccine, which showed significant improvements in flock size and health (Otiang et al., 2021). In some areas, a single dose of recombinant vaccines, such as the rHVT-ND, was used to provide long-term protection against ND (Shi et al., 2024). The campaign also included monitoring of antibody titers to ensure adequate immunity levels were maintained across the poultry population (Taebipour et al., 2017; Oberländer et al., 2020). Over time, the vaccination efforts led to a significant reduction in ND outbreaks, with improved flock immunity and reduced virus transmission (Tatár-Kis et al., 2020; Akther and Hassan, 2022). In summary, the successful eradication of Newcastle disease in the case study region was achieved through a comprehensive vaccination campaign that adapted to the local poultry dynamics and employed both routine and innovative vaccination strategies. This approach not only controlled the disease but also enhanced the overall health and productivity of the poultry industry in the region. 5 Factors Contributing to the Success of Vaccination Campaign 5.1 Effective vaccine delivery systems and logistics Effective vaccine delivery systems are crucial for the success of vaccination campaigns against Newcastle disease (ND). In southeastern Kenya, a community-centered vaccine delivery model was implemented, which involved training community vaccinators to provide vaccination services. This model significantly increased vaccine uptake and reduced ND-related deaths, demonstrating the importance of accessible and efficient vaccine delivery systems (Ogolla et al., 2024). Similarly, in rural Tanzania, the use of trained community vaccinators administering thermotolerant vaccines via eyedrop was found to be effective, highlighting the role of tailored delivery methods in enhancing vaccination success (De Bruyn et al., 2017). 5.2 Government policy support and financial resources Government policy support and financial resources are vital for sustaining vaccination campaigns. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the establishment of a paid vaccination service for village chickens was assessed, revealing that socio-economic factors and government support play a significant role in the adoption of
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