Animal Molecular Breeding, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 72-81 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/amb 78 Additionally, development of multivalent vaccines (e.g., vaccines for different serotypes of foot-and-mouth disease virus FMDV) requires precise formulation design to ensure protection against different serotypes, which makes production very complex (Noel et al., 2024). Additionally, the vaccine must be suitable for goats of different ages, specifically safe and devoid of side effects in young goats. This was brought forth in the trial of Coxiella vaccine, indicating the necessity of age-dependent vaccine formulations (Martín et al., 2020). 7.2 Challenges in comprehensive control of multi-pathogen infections Multi-pathogen goat infections are controlled by integrating multiple diseases in a way that more than one disease must be treated simultaneously. Concomitant vaccination against PPR, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia, and pasteurellosis has been successful to some extent, but lack of protection against goat pox and sheep pox shows that full immunity is hard to achieve. In addition, the development of vaccines against such goat pox virus-induced diseases with more than one protective function (e.g., sheep pox and goat pox) requires innovative solutions, such as the generation of gene-deficient viruses (Fernández et al., 2022). 7.3 Limitations in basic immunology research restrict precision vaccine design The lack of basic immunology research has limited the development of precision vaccines. For example, understanding the mechanisms of certain immune responses generated by different classes of vaccines (e.g., live attenuated vaccines and inactivated vaccines) is crucial for the optimization of vaccine formulations. At the same time, identification of specific antigens is needed in order to provoke intense immune responses (e.g., major antigens of Haemonchus vaccine development) prior to being able to devise targeted immune prevention measures (Zamuner et al., 2023). 7.4 Necessity of establishing regional control systems and international cooperation mechanisms Establishing regional disease control systems and improving global cooperation systems is essential in controlling goat diseases effectively. Transboundary diseases such as toxoplasmosis, which are zoonotic, highlight the need for coordination across borders in vaccine development and prevention and control of disease (Xuan, 2024). In addition, implementation of standard vaccination strategies for foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) control also requires cross-regional coordination to ensure consistency and effectiveness of vaccination drives (Koets et al., 2019). 8 Concluding Remarks In the past few years, research on disease control and prevention and immunity in goats has been remarkable. Progress in vaccine technologies is particularly significant, especially for the control of such diseases as paratuberculosis and FMD, which have been accomplished. For example, research on paratuberculosis has shown that live attenuated vaccines can provide strong immune responses, wherein vaccinated goats' T cell subsets exhibited enhanced proliferation and inflammatory responses that were lower than that of the unvaccinated counterpart. Double-oil-emulsion foot-and-mouth disease vaccines also outclass the traditional aluminum hydroxide gel vaccines in terms of triggering immune responses, with a universal vaccine system promised. Furthermore, the combination vaccines developed by merging over one disease such as peste des petits ruminants and infectious goat pleuropneumonia have also elicited superb protective immunity without causing side effects. However, there remain many gaps in information and technical problems. Pathophysiological mechanisms of paratuberculosis infection at early stages are still not completely revealed, hence limiting the architecture of early diagnostics. At the same time, there are inconsistencies in effects of environmental factors and age of vaccination on immune response, hindering the standardization of vaccination procedures. Presently, good techniques for the differentiation of infected and vaccinated animals, to a certain extent, limit the implementation of disease control practices. Moreover, despite having extensive prospects in combination vaccines, protection efficacy against all the targeted diseases (such as goat pox and sheep pox) needs to be further verified. In the coming years, the use of newer molecular technologies such as RNA sequencing will continue to improve the knowledge of mechanisms of immune responses and provide support to the optimization of vaccines and
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