Animal Molecular Breeding, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 72-81 http://animalscipublisher.com/index.php/amb 76 4.3 Development of immune markers and monitoring indicators Development of immune marker and monitoring indicators is quite crucial in the determination of vaccine efficacy and disease course. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is a reference method for the evaluation of humoral immune responses to vaccination in goats (Arsenopoulos et al., 2021). In addition, acute phase protein variation and cytokine profile variation can be utilized as markers of innate and acquired immune stimulation. These immune markers are of significant application value to monitor the immune status of goats and screen optimal immune strategies (Asadi et al., 2023). 4.4 Mechanisms of immune tolerance and immunosuppression Understanding mechanisms of immune tolerance and immunosuppression in goats is also relevant to the design of improved disease control strategies. In paratuberculosis, for example, vaccination can modulate the immune response, and vaccinated goats exhibit less inflammatory reactions than infected goats. In addition, the balance between different kinds of immune cells, such as T cells and B cells, maintains immune homeostasis and prevents excessive activation of the immune system from causing tissue damage (De Oliveira et al., 2022). However, the complex interactions involved in immune suppression and tolerance processes need to be studied further. 5 Vaccine Development and Immunization Strategies 5.1 Applications of traditional inactivated and live-attenuated vaccines Traditional vaccines such as inactivated and live attenuated vaccines have been pivotal to disease control in goats. For example, a formaldehyde-inactivated Coxiella burnetii vaccine has been encouraging in the control of pathogen shedding in goats but additional trials need to demonstrate its protective efficacy. Similarly, a live attenuated Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) vaccine was successfully applied, and in research it has been shown to induce an inactivated immunity in goats, either administered subcutaneously or intranasally (Rooney et al., 2023) (Figure 2). Figure 2 Quantitative MAP DNA contrast in Camøs and supernatants from vaccinated and non-vaccinated goats (Adopted from Arteche-Villasol et al., 2021) 5.2 Advances in genetic engineering and subunit vaccines In the last several years, genetic engineering has promoted the development of recombinant and subunit vaccines. For example, a recombinant Haemonchus contortus antigen has shown high immunoprophylactic efficacy in goats, as indicated by reduced fecal egg counts and worm burdens (Minesso et al., 2024). In addition, a recombinant goatpox virus vaccine expressing PPR virus glycoprotein has been developed to induce long-term neutralizing antibodies and offer hope for the use of the "differentiation between infected and vaccinated animals" (DIVA) strategy (Mahapatra et al., 2020). 5.3 Novel vaccine delivery systems In order to make vaccines more effective, researchers are studying various new delivery systems. For example, Criado et al. (2024) utilized adenovirus type 5 (Ad5)-based vectors for intravaginal delivery, which has been
RkJQdWJsaXNoZXIy MjQ4ODYzNA==